Identification of the Determinants of Rural Workforce Migration: A Study of Construction Segments in Udupi District, Karnataka, India

This study aims to determine the Expenditures and differences in the Pattern of Food and Non-Food Expenditures in Pre-Prosperous and Prosperous 1 Families in Fatuleu District, Kupang Regency. To find out food and non-food consumption expenditures, descriptive methods were used, while to find out differences in food and non-food expenditure patterns in Pre-Prosperous and Prosperous 1 Families, data analysis techniques were carried out using Chi Square Two Independent Samples. The results of the study show that (1) the average spending on food and non-food consumption in pre-prosperous families: food expenditure is Rp. 759,000 and non-food expenditure amounted to Rp. 587,000. While the average for food and non-food expenditure in the Prosperous Family 1: food expenditure amounts to Rp. 1,178,920 and non-food expenditure amounted to Rp. 898,480. Thus the Pre-Prosperous and Prosperous 1 families prioritize spending on food compared to non-food. (2) There is a difference in the pattern of food expenditure for Pre-Prosperous and Prosperous 1 families with a food value of 1,000 and a non-food value of 0.728. Thus there are significant differences in the pattern of food and non-food expenditure in Pre-Prosperous and Prosperous 1 families. The existence of significant differences in the pattern of food and non-food expenditure in Pre-Prosperous and Prosperous 1 families shows that people prioritize spending on food consumption compared to non-food consumption

BackgroundNumber of internal rural to urban migrant children in China increased rapidly. The disparity of anemia prevalence among them and children of local permanent residents has been reported, both in big and middle-size cities. There has been no population-based study to explore the associated factors on feeding behaviors in small size cities of China. This study aimed to identify whether there was a difference in the prevalence of anemia between children of rural to urban migrant families and local children under 2 years old in a small coastal city in China, and to identify the associated factors of any observed difference.MethodsA community-based, cross-sectional survey was conducted in Pinghu, a newly-developing city in Zhejiang Province, China, among the caregivers of 988 children (667 who were identified as children of migrants and 321 locals) aged 6–23 months. Disparity of anemia prevalence were reported. Association between anemia prevalence and socio-economic status and feeding behaviors were explored among two groups respectively.ResultsAnemia prevalence among the migrant and local children was 36.6% and 18.7% respectively (aPR 1.86, 95% CI 1. 40 to 2.47). Results from adjusted Poisson models revealed: having elder sibling/s were found as an associated factor of anemia with the aPR 1.47 (95% CI 1.16 to 1.87) among migrant children and 2.58 (95% CI 1.37 to 4.58) among local ones; anemia status was associated with continued breastfeeding at 6 months (aPR = 1.57, 95% CI 1.15 to 2.14) and lack of iron-rich and/or iron-fortified foods (aPR = 0.68, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.89) among the migrant children but not among local ones.ConclusionAnemia was more prevalent among migrant children, especially those aged 6–11 months. Dislike their local counterparts, migrant children were more vulnerable at early life and seemed sensitive to feeding behaviors, such as, over reliance on breastfeeding for nutrition after aged 6 months, lack of iron-rich and/or iron-fortified foods. Future strategies to narrow the gap of anemia prevalence between the migrant and local children should target more susceptible groups and through improvement of feeding practices among younger children in those kinds of newly-developing areas of China.

The purpose of this study was to analyze (1) differences in food and non-food consumption before and during the Covid-19 pandemic, (2) differences in food and non-food consumption in rural areas before and during the Covid-19 pandemic, and (3) differences in food and non-food consumption in urban areas before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in West Java Province. This study used data analysis using the normality test, paired sample t-test and nonparametric tests using the Wilcoxon sign rank test. The results showed that: (1) there were differences in food consumption before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in West Java Province, (2) there were differences in non-food consumption before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in West Java Province, (3) there were differences in consumption food and non-food in rural areas before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in West Java Province, (4) there are differences in food consumption in urban areas before and during the Covid-19 pandemic, and there are no differences in non-food consumption in urban areas before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in West Java Province.

This study aims to find out how the diversity of family consumption of migrant workers and non migrant workers, and how much influence the remittance to the consumption of family of migrant workers covering consumption of capital expenditure, food consumption, non-food consumption and total consumption. And how much influence the income on the consumption of non-migrant family which includes consumption of capital expenditure, food consumption, non-food consumption, and total consumption. To achieve these objectives used primary data obtained directly from the place of study. The method of analysis used in this research is Simple Linear Regression Analysis. The results of this study indicate that remittance variable has a positive influence on consumption of capital expenditure, food consumption, non-food consumption, and total consumption of families of migrant workers. And remittance variables also have a significant influence on consumption of capital expenditure, food consumption, non-food consumption, and total consumption of families of migrant workers.. The income variable has a positive effect on consumption of capital expenditure, food consumption, non-food consumption, and total consumption of Non-migrant family workers. And income variables also have a significant effect on consumption of capital expenditure, food consumption, non-food consumption, and total consumption of Non-migrant family workers.Keywords: Consumption, Remittance, Revenue, Capital Expenditure Consumption, Food Consumption, Non-Food Consumption, Total Consumption.

This article explores the cross-sectional properties of household's food and non-food consumption expenditures conceptualized as inter-dependent spatial random processes within the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU). To this end, the paper applies spatio-temporal econometric methods to data extracted from the first edition of the Harmonized Survey on Household Living Conditions (EHCVM, 2018/2019). The findings from the unconditional distribution of household economic wellbeing (measured by nominal per-capita food and non-food expenditures) using the inequality indicators of the Atkinson and Gini coefficients, suggest the presence of cross-sectional inequalities in household food and non-food wellness within WAEMU. However, food wellness inequality appeared lower than that of non-food wellness across the 8 countries. In addition, the economic security analysis, based on the indices of Watts, Sen, and Foster (aplha=1), highlight important spatial heterogeneity in household's vulnerability to poverty within-and-between WAEMU country members. Moreover, estimation of the semiparametric bivariate Gaussian copula model of food and non-food consumption expenditures, shows their significant dependence with household's demographic and geospatial characteristics, as well as the economic and health characteristics of the household head. Indeed, among other key findings, a gender based gradient in household's food and non-food wellness at respectively 3.6 and 4.4% is observed in favor of male headed households; along with an Urban/Rural divide in food and non-food wellness at 20.7% and 27.3%, respectively, in favor of urban households. Therefore, in line with goals 1, 2, 4, 5, 9 and 10 of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, the paper provides key insights for evidence based policy making within WAEMU.

In China, rural–urban migration is one of major influences on the mental health of migrant and left-behind children. Literature suggests that the perception of discrimination is an important factor that influences the mental health of these children. The present research explores (1) whether migrant children and left-behind children are different in the relationship between the perception of discrimination and mental health, and (2) whether the relationship between the perception of discrimination and mental health of these children is moderated by gender and age. Using a meta-analytic technique, the authors included 26 studies (generating 48 independent samples) with a total sample size of 28,883 participants. Results showed that the perception of discrimination of migrant children was negatively correlated with positive indicators of mental health, and it has a stronger effect than left-behind children; the perception of discrimination of migrant children was positively correlated with negative indicators of mental health, and it has a weaker effect than left-behind children. Additionally, gender moderated the relationship between the perception of discrimination and the positive indicators of mental health among left-behind children, while age moderated such relationship among migrant children.

A striking feature of many cities in less developed countries (LDCs) is the coexistence of large, well-organized, high-technology firms with the small street vendors who own little but a wooden box to sit on. This apparent dualism in the urban economy has been a concern of students of economic development for many years. Several international agencies, notably the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World Bank, have focused attention on this phenomenon. The ILO popularized the terms formal and to describe this dichotomy. To many economists, one consequence of this dualism is labor market segmentation.' Labor market segmentation plays a crucial role in explanations provided for some important issues, such as rural-urban migration, urban poverty, unemployment, underemployment, and growth.2 In this article I examine the hypothesis that labor market segmentation exists in San Jos6, Costa Rica, between the public and private-formal sectors and between the privateformal and informal sectors (defined in the Appendix). I define labor market segmentation as a situation where, because of institutional barriers to occupational mobility between sectors, a worker in the lower sector has less than full access to a job in the upper sector held by an observationally identical worker.3 If there were no barriers, workers in the low wage sector would enter the high wage sector and force the wages in that sector down until wages across sectors were equalized. That is, labor market segmentation implies differences in wages for observationally identical workers. Relying on this inference, most of the empirical literature on labor market segmen-

School disruption of children in China: The influence of parents’ rural–urban migration

China's urban educational policies have been established to solve the problems of potential discrimination and inequitable access to education, disrupting migrant children who move from rural areas to urban cities and who tend to suffer from a range of mental health issues. However, little is known regarding how China's urban educational policies affect migrant children's psychological capital and social integration. This paper aims to explore the effect of urban education policies on improving migrant children's psychological capital level in China. The second objective of this paper is to examine whether policies can encourage them to integrate into urban society in a positive way. This paper thoroughly analyzes the impact of China's urban educational policies on three dimensions of social integration of migrant children (identification, acculturation, and psychological integration), and also verifies the mediating effects of psychological capital on the relationships between these variables. The subjects of this study are 1770 migrant children in grades 8-12, who are sourced from seven coastal cities in China. Multiple regression analysis and mediation effect tests are employed to analyze the data. This study reveals that migrant children's identification with educational policies has a significant positive impact on their psychological capital. Psychological capital has partial mediating effects on the relationship between identification with educational policies and the three dimensions of social integration. In other words, identification with educational policies indirectly affects the process of social integration of migrant children through psychological capital. Based on this, for the purpose of promoting the positive impacts of educational policies of inflow cities on the social integration of migrant children, this study makes the following recommendations: (a) at the micro-level, the psychological capital of individual migrant children should be enhanced; (b) at the meso-level, the partnerships between migrant children and urban children should be taken seriously; and (c) at the macro-level, the urban educational policies related to migrant children should be improved. This paper not only makes policy recommendations for improving the educational policies of inflow cities, but also offers a Chinese perspective on the research related to the tricky issue facing all countries around the world, the social integration of migrant children.

The number of urban migrants in China is 300 million and is increasing rapidly in response to government policies. Urban migrants have poor access to health care, but little is known about rates of correction of refractive error among migrant children. This is of particular significance in light of recent evidence demonstrating the educational impact of providing children with spectacles. To measure prevalence of spectacle need and ownership among Chinese migrant children. Population-based, cross-sectional study among children who failed vision testing (uncorrected visual acuity ≤6/12 in either eye) between September 15 and 30, 2013, at 94 randomly selected primary schools in predominantly migrant communities in Shanghai, Suzhou, and Wuxi, China. Refractive error by cycloplegic refraction; spectacle ownership, defined as producing glasses at school, having been told to bring them; and needing glasses, defined as uncorrected visual acuity of 6/12 or less correctable to greater than 6/12 in either eye, with myopia of -0.5 diopters (D) or less, hyperopia of +2.0 D or greater, or astigmatism of 0.75 D or greater in both eyes. Among 4409 children, 4376 (99.3%) completed vision screening (mean [SD] age, 11.0 [0.81] years; 55.3% boys; 4225 [96.5%] migrant and 151 [3.5%] local). Among 1204 children failing vision testing (total, 27.5%; 1147 migrant children [27.1%] vs 57 local children [37.7%]; P = .003), 850 (70.6%) completed refraction. Spectacle ownership in migrant children needing glasses (147 of 640 children [23.0%]) was less than among local children (12 of 34 children [35.3%]) (odds ratio = 0.55; 95% CI, 0.32-0.95; P = .03). Having uncorrected visual acuity less than 6/18 in both eyes was associated positively with baseline spectacle ownership (odds ratio = 5.73; 95% CI, 3.81-8.62; P < .001), but parental education and family wealth were not. Among urban migrant children, there was a high prevalence of need for spectacles and a very low rate of spectacle ownership. Spectacle distribution programs are needed specifically targeting migrant children.

The aims of this study were: 1) to analyze the effect of the number of family members, education level, and income, simultaneously on food consumption, non-food consumption, and total consumption of Millennial Generation in Denpasar City; 2) analyze the effect of the number of family members, education level, and income, partially on food consumption, non-food consumption, and the total consumption of Millennial Generation in Denpasar City. This research was conducted in Denpasar City. The sampling technique used in this research is purposive sampling. Methods of data collection is done by observation, questionnaires, and interviews. The analysis technique used in this research is multiple linear regression. The results of this study indicate that the number of family members, education level, and income have a significant effect simultaneously on consumption. The number of family members and income have a significant positive effect on food consumption, education level has no significant effect on food consumption. The number of family members, education level and income have a significant positive effect partially on non-food consumption. The number of family members, education level and income partially have a significant positive effect on total consumption.

Highlighting the fluid nature of habitus/capital, this paper critiques a ‘rucksack approach’ (Erel, 2010) in the Bourdieusian studies of Chinese migrants’ cultural reproduction and social inclusion, which takes a determinism and fatalism standpoint and neglects the re-structuring of the migrant habitus and cultural capital over generations. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in Beijing and Shanghai with 62 teachers, rural migrants and local parents and students. This paper conceptualises an urban field of cultural reproduction, which is marked by the reproduction and validation of urban-specific cultural configurations, including knowledge, skill, language, aesthetic/taste, value and lifestyle. In this field, migrant children have experienced re-structuring of habitus and accumulation of new forms of cultural capital. This is illustrated by their manner of speaking, ways of behaving, self-presentation, and their appreciation of extra-curricular hobbies. A well-integrated relationship between migrant and local children can be identified, which contributes to the production of a generation of ‘new urban citizens’, yet in the meantime reproduces the migrant families’ class status as low-skilled labourers.

This study aims to identify and analyze the development of consumption expenditure of urban residents, the spending patterns of food and non food consumption of urban residents, the MPC for food and non food of urban residents, and the function of food and non food consumption of urban residents in Jambi province. Descriptive analysis method was used as data analysis in this study. The results of this study showed that during the time period of 1993-2011 per capita consumption expenditure of urban residents in Jambi always increase with an average of 52.11 percent per three years, or 17.37 percent annually. Meanwhile, the pattern of consumption expenditure of urban residents in Jambi province is still dominated by food consumption expenditure by the average of 55.09 percent while non-food consumption only amounted to 44.01 percent. However, the spending patterns of food and non food consumption of urban residents Jambi province has changed. The function of food consumption of urban residents Jambi province during the period 1993-2011was by 25.8 percent and 23.8 percent for non-food.Keyword: The function of consumption, consumption patterns, food and non-food

While there is a great deal of anecdotal evidence on the economic effects of adverse health shocks, there is relatively little hard empirical evidence. The author builds on recent empirical work to explore in the context of postreform Vietnam two related issues: (1) how far household income and medical care spending responds to health shocks, and (2) how far household consumption is protected against health shocks. The results suggest that adverse health shocks - captured by negative changes in body mass index (BMI) - are associated with reductions in earned income. This appears to be only partly - if at all - due to a reverse feedback from income changes to BMI changes. By contrast, there is a hint - the relevant coefficient is not significant - that adverse BMI shocks may result in increases in unearned income. This may reflect additional gifts, remittances, and so on, from family and friends following the health shock. Medical spending is found to increase following an adverse health shock, but not among those with health insurance. The impact for the uninsured is large, equal in absolute size to the income loss associated with a BMI shock. The lack of impact for the insured points to complete insurance against the medical care costs associated with health shocks, and is consistent with the very generous coverage of Vietnam's health insurance program in this period. The question arises: have Vietnamese households been able to hold their food and nonfood consumption constant in the face of these income reductions and extra medical care outlays? The results suggest not. For the sample as a whole, both food and nonfood consumption are found to be responsive to health shocks, indicating an inability to smooth nonmedical consumption in the face of health shocks. Further analysis reveals some interesting differences across different groups within the sample. Households with insurance come no closer to smoothing nonmedical consumption than uninsured households. Furthermore, and somewhat counterintuitively, better-off households - including insured households - fare worse than poorer households in smoothing their nonmedical consumption in the face of health shocks, despite the fact that in the case of insured households there are no medical bills associated with an adverse health event. Why the poor rely on dissaving and borrowing to such an extent, and do not apparently reduce their food and nonfood consumption following an adverse health shock while the better-off do, may be because the levels of food and nonfood consumption of the poor are simply too low relative to basic needs to enable them to cut back in the face of an adverse BMI shock.

The household is the smallest unit in society, so it can be said that household income means community income. This study aims to determine the determination of the variable income, economic activity, and household members, as well as differences in the location of residence to the consumption of oil palm farmers in Labuhanbatu Regency. The method used to analyze data with multiple linear regression models, by certifying in the Least Square Dummy Variable (LSDV) method. The estimation results found that all independent variables were positive and significantly influenced the amount of food consumption, on the contrary were negative and significant towards non-food consumption expenditure. The estimation results also found that the amount of consumption of various types of foodstuffs in urban communities was smaller than the food consumption of inland communities amounting to Rp.1,248,000. However, greater than the consumption of food for coastal communities is Rp. 1,323,800. While the amount of consumption expenditure for various types of non-food for urban communities is greater than non-food consumption for inland communities Rp.2,782,000. And also greater than non-food consumption of coastal communities, namely Rp. 3776 000. Variation in the ability of independent variables in explaining food consumption by 92.5 percent, and expenditure for non-food consumption by 87.4 percent. The model specification is very good with the model being free from violations of the classical assumptions of multicollinearity and heterokedastisitas.&#x0D; Keywords: Consumption, Income, Socio-economy, Oil palm Farmers