Unequal Treatment Research Articles

How Chinese Sovietologists Perceived and Interpreted Soviet Foreign Policy in the Early 1980s

This article will examine the analyses of Chinese Soviet-watchers on Soviet foreign policy against the larger context of China’s political setting in the early 1980s, before the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985, and investigate how those Chinese scholars placed post- Mao Chinese official agendas centrally in their research. In the early 1980s, when the Sino-Soviet relations were in estrangement and the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan had exacerbated the bilateral relations, the CCP regime called for the state-wide denunciation of the so-called Soviet hegemonism (baquan zhuyi). After that, Chinese Soviet-watchers became preoccupied with criticizing Soviet hegemonism in their writings. This article will show that both the real Soviet military threat along the PRC border after Moscow’s incursion into Afghanistan, and the historical memory of the past Russian invasion of China played key roles in intensifying the hostility of Chinese scholars toward the USSR in the early 1980s. The criticisms gradually receded after Mikhail Gorbachev took power in 1985, and the label of Soviet hegemonism finally disappeared from Chinese Sovietology writings in the late 1980s, when the bilateral relations had normalized. Moscow’s relations with Albania, Yugoslavia and the Third World also became popular topics in the early 1980s Chinese writings. In the case of Albania, although post-Mao China deeply disliked Albanian dictator Enver Hoxha’s Maoist isolation policy, Chinese scholars highly appreciated Albania’s resistance to Moscow’s domination in the early 1980s. Their stand served quite well to China’s anti-Soviet position then. In the early days of the decade, the CCP regime was attracted by Yugoslavia’s intransigence toward the Kremlin and, most importantly, Belgrade’s trajectory of reform that deviated from the orthodox Soviet model. Many Chinese Soviet-watchers supported wholeheartedly Yugoslavia’s stand in its conflicts with Moscow since the end of the Second World War. The trend reflects China’s ambition of challenging the Soviet domination of the socialist camp, and its aspiration to embrace Yugoslavia’s trajectory of reform, which mixed central planning and market mechanism, and is exactly the path the PRC has taken since 1978. Chinese perceptions of Soviet-Third World relations should also be viewed in the context of China’s Third World policy direction in the early 1980s, when the CCP regime was determined to end Maoist isolation and become a partner of the underdeveloped nations. Chinese scholars always had strong sympathy for the Third World and stood by the side of those countries through their criticisms of Soviet aggression in the region. Many of these scholars argued that Soviet behaviours were contradictory to Lenin’s internationalism. In the Chinese mind, Moscow’s unequal treatment of some Third World states evoked memories of China in the past, when the country had also been bullied and weakened by Tsars and the Kremlin after 1949. Chinese scholars strongly promoted and defended the case of the Third World in their articles. The writings demonstrate China’s determination to challenge Moscow’s authority, appeal for redress for past historical wrongdoings, and promote the moral superiority of Chinese socialism over that of the USSR. As such, seen from the early 1980s Chinese criticisms of Soviet foreign policy, Chinese research of Soviet hegemonism, Soviet-Albanian and Soviet-Yugoslavian conflicts, and Soviet-Third World relations all reflected Beijing’s ambitions of challenging the orthodox Soviet model of economic development in the socialist world, competing with the Kremlin for leadership in the developing countries, and projecting a fair and benevolent image of Chinese socialism vis-à-vis Moscow. As has been demonstrated, Chinese Soviet-watchers did not present many vicissitudes of Soviet international manoeuvres in their writings; instead, through research on the formation and evolution of Soviet foreign policy, they attempted to adjust their analyses to align with China’s vision of itself and the world. Their writings function to highlight lessons learned from Moscow, legitimize the CCP rule and the Chinese way of practicing socialism, and to envision the future direction of China in the reform era. In short, Chinese research of Soviet foreign policy in the early 1980s had primarily been to trace problems of Chinese socialism as experienced by scholars at the time of their research; this was done in order to legitimise state agendas, rather than to seek truth about the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Ketimpangan Gender di Layar Perak: Representasi Perempuan di Film Terlaris Indonesia

As part of popular culture, film is able to both reflect and shape the understanding and attitudes towards gender in a society. However, despite the increase of gender awareness in Indonesian society, there are still many filmmakers unfamiliar with gender issues. In fact, the unequal treatment and underrepresentation of female characters in film is a real issue within the Indonesian film industry. It is seen in the lack of films that positively representing women. Often, women are portrayed as being inferior to men. In addition, many films still sexually objectify women. This study attempts to analyze the depiction of women between highest-grossing films made by female directors and those directed by males. This paper aims to highlight how female participation within film production influences women’s representation in popular films. The data is analysed using the Bechdel test — a tool to measure representation of women in fictional stories. Furthermore, this study examines female attitudes, characters, and their roles within the film, as well as the ways in which other roles respond to female roles. This study finds that women are represented in greater proportion and are portrayed more positively in films directed by women. In conclusion, gender portrayal within film is greatly influenced by the actors behind the scenes.

ILS bilinguals and SFL bilinguals. Reflections on unequal treatment in Mexico

Este ensayo tiene como objetivo mostrar los pasos que han llevado a formar un trato desigual hacia el bilingüismo lengua indígena-español (LOE) frente al bilingüismo español-lengua extranjera (ELE), desfavoreciendo el primero y respaldando el segundo desde la política lingüística mexicana. En primer lugar, se identifican los dos tipos de bilingüismo a nivel lingüístico, donde se sostiene que ambos son tan válidos y sin motivos intrínsecos que ameriten su desvalorización. Posteriormente, se aborda el conflicto lingüístico entre las lenguas originarias y el español como primer antecedente a la percepción minorizada de las lenguas indígenas y la incidencia del racismo que permea desde la colonia. Un segundo paso es la formación de políticas lingüísticas después de la Independencia de México, donde se impuso el español y el olvido de las lenguas indígenas. El tercero y último corresponde a las políticas lingüísticas educativas formadas en el siglo XX. En estas políticas, mientras que las lenguas extranjeras se insertaban en los planes educativos nacionales, el bilingüismo LOE era un paso al monolingüismo en español. Finalmente se señala que actualmente el bilingüismo LOE indiza significados distintos al bilingüismo ELE en las percepciones de la población y que esto lleva a tratos diferenciados que atentan contra los derechos de quienes hablan una lengua originaria y el español.

Owoc zatrutego drzewa? Situation testing jako dowód w sprawach o dyskryminację

Owoc zatrutego drzewa? Situation testing jako dowód w sprawach o dyskryminację

Secularism and Rise of Sunni Islam in Turkey: The Otherisation of the Alevis

State-religion relationship is one of the elements which shape state-society relationship, and this relationship determines the quality of democracy. Alevi citizens in Turkey have been suffering from unequal treatment in terms of state attitude towards their religious freedom and education. Turkey has a sui generis secularisation background which is identified as not having equal distance to all belief systems. Turkish style secularism represents an understanding which has alienated the Alevi citizens and seen them as the “others”. The Directorate of Religious Affairs was established to introduce and promote a specific understanding of religion, namely Sunni Islam. In this study, the concept of “otherness” in the constitution of Turkish national identity will be employed as an analytical tool in exploring how state-religion relationship in Turkey has been an important factor producing inequalities between citizens leading to discrimination towards the Alevi identity. In this regard, the role of the Directorate of Religious Affairs will also be discussed while focusing on the rise of Sunni Islam.

Expression of discrimination against children with disabilities in the Lithuanian health care system

In the present article, I aim to answer the questions: what is the situation of children with disabilities and their parents in the healthcare system in Lithuania? Are they discriminated against? If discrimination against children with disabilities persists, what is its manifestation? Is it possible to see a link between discrimination against children with disabilities and attitudes towards parents of children with disabilities? These and other similar questions reflect the scientific problem of the article. The research questions are concretized by the research object – expression of discrimination of children with disabilities and their parents in the Lithuanian health care and related systems. The findings of the research prove that there are cases when children with disabilities experience discrimination in the Lithuanian health care system. The expression of discrimination against children with disabilities and their parents is related to: open disregard of the child and his/her mother, which escalates into an underestimation of the child as a person; neglect of infants from children’s home in the hospital; unequal treatment conditions for children with different disabilities; discrimination against children with intellectual disabilities in access to dental treatment; irresponsible administering or not administering medicines to children with disabilities; together with children, their mothers are also discriminated against; low-quality services that violate the dignity of the child and the family. Not only children with disabilities but also their parents can face discrimination in the health care system.

GROUNDS (CRITERIA) OF DISCRIMINATION IN THE LIGHT OF THE AMENDMENT TO THE LABOUR CODE OF 16 MAY 2019 IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL AND EU LAW

On 7 September 2019, another amendment to the Labour Code entered into force, which introduced, among other things, an open catalogue of the grounds (criteria) of discrimination. De lege lata enumeration of the grounds of discrimination in the Labour Code is illustrative regardless of whether such criteria pertain to personal characteristics of an employee, an employee’s life choices unrelated to their job, job performed by an employee or a legal status of an employer, etc. It means that any unequal treatment of employees not justified by objective reasons is now regarded as discrimination in employment. However, the new grounds (criteria) of discrimination should be actual, specific and socially relevant. Employees’ claims in this respect should be based on a legitimate (well-balanced and objective) reason and make it objectively plausible. As a consequence, employees will be able to claim compensation under Article 183d of the Labour Code from the employer on various grounds of discrimination, and not only those referred to and specified in the Labour Code.

What Do Placebo and Nocebo Effects Have to Do With Health Equity? The Hidden Toll of Nocebo Effects on Racial and Ethnic Minority Patients in Clinical Care.

A placebo effect is a positive clinical response to non-specific elements of treatment with a sham or inert replica of a drug, device, or surgical intervention. There is considerable evidence that placebo effects are driven by expectation of benefit from the intervention. Expectation is shaped by a patient’s past experience, observations of the experience of others, and written, verbal, or non-verbal information communicated during treatment. Not surprisingly, expectation in the clinical setting is strongly influenced by the attitude, affect, and communication style of the healthcare provider. While positive expectations can produce beneficial effects, negative information and experiences can lead to negative expectations, and consequently negative or nocebo effects. Key components identified and studied in the placebo and nocebo literature intersect with factors identified as barriers to quality care in the clinical setting for Black patients and other patients of color, including poor patient-clinician communication, medical mistrust, and perceived discrimination. Thus, in the context of discrimination and bias, the absence of placebo and presence of nocebo-generating influences in clinical settings could potentially reinforce racial and ethnic inequities in clinical outcomes and care. Healthcare inequities have consequences that ripple through the medical system, strengthening adverse short- and long-term outcomes. Here, we examine the potential for the presence of nocebo effects and absence of placebo effects to play a role in contributing to negative outcomes related to unequal treatment in the clinical encounter.

Legal Regulation of Algorithmic Discrimination

Algorithmic discrimination is a kind of unreasonable, unequal treatment based on algorithms, which is widely existing in all areas of our social and economic life. Compared with traditional discrimination, algorithmic discrimination is inherent, professional and concealed. In practice, both market forces and government regulation have certain limitations in regulating algorithmic discrimination. On the one hand, enterprise autonomy often fails due to benefit considerations, while industry self-discipline lacks a set of mature and effective rules. On the other hand, in addition to the lack of complete algorithm review mechanisms and accountability systems, government supervision is also limited by technical regulatory difficulties. Therefore, it is necessary to further improve the legislation of algorithmic discrimination, set up algorithm review institutions, establish algorithm review mechanisms and strengthen industry and enterprise self-discipline.

Discrimination in Long-Term Care Facilities: Legal Consciousness and Problem-Solving Among Staff

Abstract Over half of direct care workers in long-term care facilities are women of color. Building on legal consciousness theory–which explains how individuals invoke legal principles to define everyday experiences–this study examines how staff understand and resolve discrimination between residents and staff and among staff. This study employs a multi-method qualitative extended comparative case approach. Data includes in-depth semi-structured interviews (n=80) and participant and non-participant observation (n=8 months) at two facilities that vary in staff racial composition. Findings reveal rampant unreported instances of race and sex discrimination toward Black staff by white staff and residents. Black staff at all levels did not invoke rights or discrimination rhetoric when they experienced overt race discrimination by residents but engaged in significant emotional labor to respond to race discrimination by residents. Black staff, however, perceived microaggressions and unequal treatment by white staff as discrimination. At both facilities, floor staff and management adopted diverse team approaches across race and staff hierarchy for responding to race discrimination by residents toward Black female staff. These findings suggest the need for new and targeted policy and practice approaches that recognize extensive emotional labor expended by staff of color when addressing discrimination by residents and challenges from white staff when addressing race discrimination by staff. These findings have theoretical implications by extending legal consciousness theory to multi-level staff understandings of discrimination. Findings also provide useful tools and case examples for policymakers and practitioners interested in racial justice, particularly given how COVID has exacerbated racial inequities in long-term care.

Taxation of Investment Vehicles and the Free Movement of Capital

The ECJ is currently reviewing a case (AllianzGI-Fonds AEVN) concerning provisions of Portuguese tax law that provide for an unequal treatment of non-resident and resident investment vehicles with respect to nationally-sourced dividend income. In her Opinion of 6 May 2021, Advocate General Kokott posited – in a partial departure from previous ECJ rulings – that the Portuguese provisions did not contravene EU law on the free movement of capital. This article critically examines the Advocate General’s view.

Protecting Women’s Rights and Ensuring Gender Equality

In recent decades, the international community and the European Union have paid increasing attention to ensuring a sufficiently good level of protection of women’s rights. To achieve this level, international and European bodies and institutions should draw up and adopt various acts and instruments aimed at ensuring the fundamental principle of gender equality. For example, in European Union law, the principle of equality between men and women is reflected in Articles 2 and 3 (3) of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). These provisions explicitly state that the EU is based on certain values, including equality, and specifically promote equality between men and women. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) also provides for a separate provision which entrusts the Community with the task, in all its activities, of striving to eliminate inequalities and to promote equality between men and women (Article 8 of the TFEU). Next, Article 21 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights prohibits all forms of discrimination, including on the grounds of sex. In addition to the provisions of primary law, the EU seeks to ensure the principle under analysis by adopting strategies and programs of different scope and content. The Member States of the European Union, including the Republic of Bulgaria, also actively promote respect for the principle of gender equality. Explicit guarantees for its provision are contained in the legislation of the Member States, including at the constitutional level. Despite the measures taken on a global, European and national scale, the unequal treatment of women around the world persists. Most often, differences in the treatment of men and women are observed in the social sphere, employment and pay, healthcare, access to education, political, economic and social activities. The existence of these differences leads to the conclusion that it is necessary for the international community, the European Union and its Member States to adopt and implement even more targeted actions, policies and measures to ensure adequate protection of women’s rights.

Transgender and Gender Diverse (TGD) Asian Americans in the United States: Experiences of Violence, Discrimination, and Family Support.

Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) Asian Americans in the U.S. have multiple stigmatized identities, yet their experiences of violence and discrimination are not well understood. We utilized the 2015 United States Trans Survey, the largest survey to date with U.S. TGD people, to study the experiences of TGD Asian Americans. Our study included 699 TGD Asian Americans who experienced violence and discrimination in the form of unequal treatment, verbal harassment, and physical attack. We assessed how experiences differed by sociodemographic characteristics, including birthplace, income, age, education, disability, gender identity, and region. We also explored how family support was associated with experiences of violence in the sample. Bivariate analyses and multivariable regressions were used to understand how sociodemographic variables and family support are linked to experiences of violence and discrimination. Results indicated that income, age, disability, gender identity, and family support are significantly associated with violence and discrimination. As TGD Asian Americans currently experience high levels of violence and discrimination due to transphobia and a rapidly rising anti-Asian bias stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, efforts to better understand factors that may increase vulnerability and identify how family support can mitigate those experiences are imperative.

Geographical Variation in the Management of Peripheral Arterial Occlusive Disease: A Nationwide Danish Cohort Study

Equal access for equal needs is a key goal for many healthcare systems but geographical variation research has shown that this is often not the case in areas other than vascular surgery. This study assessed the variation across specialised vascular centres of an entire healthcare system in the costs and outcomes for patients having first time revascularisation for peripheral arterial occlusive disease. This was a national study of all first time revascularisations performed in the Danish healthcare system between 2009 and 2014. Episodes were identified in the Danish Vascular Registry (n= 10 300) and data on one year follow up in terms of the costs of specialised healthcare (€) and amputation status were acquired from national registers. Generalised gamma and logit regressions were used to predict margins between centres while adjusting for population heterogeneity (age, sex, education, smoking, hypertension, diabetes, use of prophylactic pharmacological therapy, indication and type of revascularisation). Cost effectiveness frontiers were used to identify efficient providers and to illustrate the cost of reducing the system level risk of amputation. For each of the indications of chronic limb threatening and acute limb ischaemia, the one year amputation risks varied from 11% to 16% across centres (p= .003, p= .006) whereas for intermittent claudication there was no significant difference across centres. The corresponding costs of care varied across centres for all indications (p= .027, p= .028, p= .030). Linking costs and outcomes, three of seven centres were observed to provide poorer quality at higher costs. Exponentially increasing costs to obtain the maximum reduction of the amputation risk were observed. The results suggest that there is substantial variation in the clinical management of peripheral arterial occlusive disease across the Danish healthcare system and that this results in very different levels of efficiency - on top of potentially unequal treatment for equal needs. Further research is warranted.

Human dignity - source and foundation of human rights and freedoms in the 21st century

Human dignity is a criterion of appreciation among people, because each of us wants dignity, it comes from our own nature, but it can be achieved in the community of which we are part. Throughout the existence and development of mankind, there have been various situations in which, however, human dignity has been violated. These situations, in turn, in addition to making the problem visible, served as a pillar for inventing new areas of protection of human dignity, such as: from the perspective of unbearable social conditions and the marginalization of poor social classes; unequal treatment of women and men at work; discrimination against foreigners and cultural, linguistic, religious and racial minorities; brutal expulsion of illegal immigrants and applicants today, disability, medicine, etc. In light of such specific challenges, various aspects of the significance of human dignity arise from the multitude of experiences of what it means to be humiliated and deeply hurt. All these have taken to a new level the perception of human dignity and have generated, depending on the stated problem, different legal, international instruments meant to protect the dignity of human being.

Actors and Resources in the Deinstitutionalization and Reproduction of Educational Inequalities: A Comparative Historical Analysis

AbstractThis study reports on the findings of a comparative historical analysis uncovering three inequality projects aimed at either deinstitutionalizing or reproducing inequalities in school organizations in Memphis, Shelby County, Tennessee. My investigation covers a long period, from the mid‐1800s when the first public schools were created in Memphis, to 2014 when the suburban schools opted to permanently separate from the urban school district. The insights from this study make three key contributions. First, I develop a model of inequality work that uncovers the interactional mechanisms linking unequal impact to unequal treatment. Second, I explain why efforts at distributing resources equally can only temporarily resolve inequalities. Lastly, I identify valuation work as a central link between the material forms of institutional work to access resources and the symbolic form of institutional work to deinstitutionalize or reproduce the unequal treatment of actors.

RCP Pacifique : bilan après un an et 323 cancers rares et/ou complexes discutés

Overseas France represents 18% of French territory and is home to 4% of its population for whom there is unequal treatment in the field of rare/complex cancer. To report our experience of intercontinental multidisciplinary videoconferencing between the French mainland and Pacific territories. Every other friday, three centers located in Papeete, Nouméa and Paris-Villejuif connected between 6:30 AM and 8:00 AM GMT to discuss cases of rare/complex cancers. Between November 2019 and December 2020, 323 presentations implicating 233 patients involved sarcoma (n=93), digestive pathology (n=60), neuroendocrine tumors (n=35), urology (n=24), gynecology (n=24), neurology (n=16), thyroid pathology (n=14), dermatology (n=14), senology (n=11), hematology (n=11), ENT pathology (n=10), pathology thoracic (n=10) and pediatrics (n=1). Of the 233 patients, 134 (57.5%) living in New Caledonia and 99 (42.5%) in French Polynesia, 117 (50.5%) had metastatic disease. 39 patients (16.7%) were transferred to French mainland (EVASAN), for surgery (n=25), vectorized radiotherapy (n=7), biopsy (n=5), chemotherapy (n=1) or inclusion in a clinical trial (n=1). 195 patients (83.7%) were treated at home, 15 (6.4%) are still awaiting a decision and 4 (1.7%) lost to follow-up. The use of videoconferencing to discuss rare/complex cancer cases was effective in guaranteeing French overseas population access to innovative therapies and clinical trials, limiting the need for intercontinental transfer to 16.7%.

Zastupljenost metodike nastave sa školskom praksom na studijskim programima za obrazovanje budućih nastavnika prirodnih nauka / Representation of Teaching Methodology with School Practice in Study Programs for the Education of Pre-Service Science Teacher

Teaching methodology is a key segment in the initial education of future teachers. It is a science that studies legality in the field of teaching and learning, but in a specific, clearly defined field of activity. That is, it is a science that explores what to learn, how to learn and teach, as well as how and with what support certain teaching contents are learned. Future teachers, during their initial education, in parallel with the professional knowledge from selected subjects of study, acquire knowledge, develop skills and attitudes on how to teach this subject of study and how future generations will acquire, adopt, form knowledge and skills through their own activity. The aim of this paper is to determine the representation of teaching methodology with school practice in study programs for the education pre-service science teachers. Based on the aim, a qualitative research was conducted, in which the legal provisions regulating the teaching processes at the University of Sarajevo were primarily analysed, with an emphasis on the pedagogical-psychological and didactic methodological group of subjects in the study programs for education of pre-service science teachers at the University of Sarajevo. The total of 11 teacher education programs for education of pre-service science teachers at the Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, were analyzed. The analysis and description of official study programs that prepare future science teachers showed an unequal treatment of teaching methodology practices in the study programs of this higher education institution. We identified different approaches in creating goals and outcomes for teaching content from teaching methodology, unequal number of ECTS credits for this segment of initial education, and also the specifics of certain teaching methodology in study programs have been recognized. The results and recommendations can offer ideas for reflection that will improve the initial education for education of pre-service science teachers. The results of the research also emphasize the responsibility of university teachers in the process of creating curricula with an emphasis on pedagogical-psychological and didactic-methodological area.

Social Experiences of Muslim Americans Regarding the Intolerance Displayed by Non-Muslims

Non-Muslims in the United States have openly expressed their opposition regarding Muslim Americans, which has led to the racial profiling and unequal treatment of Muslim Americans. Literature regarding the intolerance displayed by majority members indicates a need for further research that explores the point of view of minorities in the United States. Intolerance is defined as the refusal and unwillingness to respect or tolerate persons of a different social group or members of minority groups who hold beliefs contrary to one’s own. The intolerance displayed among members of different religious and cultural backgrounds can limit the ability to discover new information needed in promoting positive social change among Muslims and non-Muslims in the United States. Semistructured interviews were used to explore the social experiences of Muslim Americans of Palestinian descent in Cleveland, Ohio, regarding prejudice and discrimination displayed by non-Muslims. The theory of planned behavior and impression management theory were used as the framework for this study. Convenience and purposeful sampling were used to recruit the 10 participants chosen for this study. Template analysis, Giorgio’s psychological phenomenological method, and coding were used to analyze the data obtained from this study. Participants revealed experiencing prejudice and discrimination “everywhere” and “anywhere,” including verbal attacks and emotional distress. Participants also described the intolerance among Muslims and non-Muslims as “good and bad” or “it depends.” Information from this study can help in the development of social strategies that can be used to improve the interactions among Muslims and non-Muslims in United States.

GESTATIONAL LOSS: EMOTIONAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS

This study attempts to verify the conditions of mothers who have gone through gestational loss. It is designed according to semi-structured interviews of affected mothers. Through semi-structured recorded interviews, directed questions were asked to ascertain perceptions that they were living through at that moment, about their adaptation to daily life, and about their mourning process and the quality of their professional activities. From the interviews, eight categorizations were created: symptoms of mourning; the time to return to work and daily routines; lack of societal recognition of mourning; mourning and spirituality; seeking of healthcare support; the fathers’ pain; the need of someone; who is this baby? And the following feelings were documented from the interviews: feelings of losing control of one’s life; broken dreams; feelings of incompleteness, guilt, and personal defeat; feelings of inferiority as a woman; subjective losses; losses in identity and eroticism; a woman’s role in society. Lastly, the study examines how gestational loss is unrecognized and unsupported by legislation, exposing a weakness in workers’ rights and unequal treatment regarding gender.