Unequal Participation Research Articles

Gendered Time in Law: Towards a New Concept of the Caring Citizen

Gender and time have been discussed at length from a sociological point of view. Social scientists have pointed out new temporal conditions. Feminist research has indicated the extent to which essentialist paradigms behind notions of time are gendered. Less attention has been paid, however, to the way gender and time are embedded in jurisprudence. For legal theorists, the unequal participation of women in both paid and unpaid work is one of the reasons why women still lack full citizenship. A redistribution of clock-time from the public sphere to the time spent on unpaid work in the private sphere has been put forward by policy-makers as the preferred solution to this problem. In this article I argue that this legal approach to time leaves gendered relationships untouched as it neglects the interrelationship between different kinds of social time.

Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma Presidential Address, American Political Science Association, 1996

Low voter turnout is a serious democratic problem for five reasons: (1) It means unequal turnout that is systematically biased against less well-to-do citizens. (2) Unequal turnout spells unequal political influence. (3) U.S. voter turnout is especially low, but, measured as percent of voting-age population, it is also relatively low in most other countries. (4) Turnout in midterm, regional, local, and supranational elections—less salient but by no means unimportant elections—tends to be especially poor. (5) Turnout appears to be declining everywhere. The problem of inequality can be solved by institutional mechanisms that maximize turnout. One option is the combination of voter-friendly registration rules, proportional representation, infrequent elections, weekend voting, and holding less salient elections concurrently with the most important national elections. The other option, which can maximize turnout by itself, is compulsory voting. Its advantages far outweigh the normative and practical objections to it.

Managers' perceptions of workplace romances: An interview study

Although workplace romances occur frequently, no research has directly examined managers' perceptions of these relationships. In this study, managers (N=30) were interviewed about workplace romances. Included in these interviews were questions about organizational policies regarding these relationships, knowledge of prior or current workplace romances, and reactions to workplace romances and the participants in those relationships. Managers also responded to 12 items designed to assess the effect of different characteristics of workplace romances on perceptions of the need for management intervention. Responses to these items indicated that managers were most likely to recommend intervention when the relationship occurred between unequal organizational status participants, and it was negatively affecting the work group. The hypothesis that women managers would respond more negatively than would male managers to workplace romances was not supported. Factors that may affect managers' reactions to participants in workplace romances are discussed.

Differential games results for military expenditures of unequal antagonists in the third world

In developing countries, resources are scarce and military expenditure can hinder development. Thus, allocation of resources between defense and civilian sectors is an important decision. Also, in developing countries, most defense spending is related to regional conflicts where one frequently encounters unequal participants (e.g., India—Pakistan, Iran—Iraq, China—Vietnam). In such situations, the bigger power aspires to be the regional leader, and allocates resources to the defense sector accordingly. A model incorporating the two above mentioned stylized facts has been examined by Deger and Sen [1] in two different ways. They first look at the problem from a single country's point of view, which takes the other's reaction function as given, and show that in the long run, military expenditures and armament stock levels will exhibit stability. Next, they formulate the problem as a noncooperative differential game in which each country assumes knowledge of the other country's welfare function, and conjecture that stability will once again be exhibited. The present paper attempts to verify that conjecture using a simplifying assumption which is necessary to be able to qualitatively solve the problem. This simplifying assumption does not change the results for the optimal control models, however, the conjecture is not valid for the simplified differential game model.

Spouses' family work participation and its relation to wives' occupational level

Past statistical and conceptual limitations may mistakenly overstate women's and men's unequal participation in family work. The present study used log-linear models to examine spouses' participation in household work and parenting and their perceptions of equity regarding this participation. Wives' occupational level, an important but often overlooked source of variation, was used to classify couples according to three family types—single-wage traditional (TR)—and two types of dual-wage families—dual-earner (DE) in which wives held jobs while husbands held jobs or careers, and dual-career (DC). Data were taken from a study of 81 couples of comparable socioeconomic status and age who had an adolescent child living at home. As hypothesized, results indicated more sharing of household work in dual-wage families than typically reported, particularly for DC families. Husbands and wives in all family types were largely in agreement regarding the distribution of responsibility for household and parenting tasks, but perceptions of equity varied by family type. Spouses with comparable perceptions of fairness reported higher marital satisfaction.

Health and Nutrition Considerations in Education Planning. 1. Educational Consequences of Health Problems among School-Age Children

This paper utilizes recent findings to address, from the perspective of an educational planner, the question of how educational systems can intervene to improve the health and nutritional status of school-age children. Evidence is reviewed on the linkages between health conditions and three of the most important educational problems in developing countries-children who are unprepared to begin school at the usual age, the failure of many students to learn adequately in school, and the unequal participation in schooling by girls. It is clear that although less attention has been paid to the health and nutrition status of school-age children than to that of children of preschool age or of adults, existing data are adequate to identify several widespread problems among school-age children that have well established negative consequences for school participation and performance. These problems include chronic protein-energy malnutrition, iron-deficiency anaemia, iodine deficiency and intestinal helminth infection. It was also observed that a number of other infectious diseases, as well as disability, premature fertility, and substance abuse, are also likely to undermine the health and educational success of many school-age children.

Unequal participation by women in the working world

Interest in studying the economic performance of women in the region dates from recent times and is related to development studies. An initial conclusion of analyses on the economic roles of the sexes was the unequal participation by men and women in the labour market. According to census records, the greater part of the adult male population appears as working population, while the majority of women appear as non-working population, i.e., they are registered as homemakers. This finding led researchers to attempt to determine its causes and to explore the different ways in which work is distributed between men and women in the areas of production and reproduction, respectively. In one way or another, Latin American societies —like those of the rest of the world— have centered women s work on the duties of social reproduction, labour force reproduction and biological reproduction. Thus, women’s role in these areas determines the form and scope of female participation in productive work.

Mary Astell and the Feminist Critique of Possesive Individualism

IT LONG HAS BEEN ASSUMED that democracy-that egalitarian political practice expressed in the simple formula that all men are created -is good for women and compatible with feminism. It is assumed that women, however devalued and disempowered, will benefit from the democratic extension of powerand be counted among those who are considered equal. Our culture's stories about women's participation in the revolutions of the eighteenth century-Betsy Ross and her friends stitching the new flag or the fierce Frenchwomen in the streets of Paris calling for the blood of aristocrats-reinforce this impression. Yet by the time Engels wrote The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, it was clear that the political inequality of the sexes was not ameliorated by a belief in democratic process. Engels theorized that it was their unequal participation in the productive labor force that kept women subordinate. When women participated equally in waged labor, he predicted, political discrimination would wither away. Yet we have seen that equal participation in productive labor has simply lengthened women's work day without changing the political reality that government is largely of men, by men, and in the interests of men. We also know by now that a belief in enfranchising the underclass does not necessarily entail a belief in women's rights. It is a notorious fact that the present women's movement emerged from the new left movement of the 60s-a movement which insisted on the more equitable distribution of society's resources and power-and that women's liberation began as a protest on the part of women activists to their devaluation, as women, within the movement. Contemporary feminists theorize that a chronic cultural misunderstanding of the relationship between production and reproduction causes political and economic sexual inequality.' The point of this article is to demonstrate that some

Differential treatment in New Zealand: Reflections on research in minority education

Differential treatment is one name for the unequal participation of children in classroom lessons. Existing New Zealand research documents the differential treatment of Maori children in the first year of school. An inservice intervention with New Zealand Junior Class teachers was carried out during 1987, involving changes in the setting events in which teachers and students interact around beginning literacy tasks. On a follow-up visit nearly two years later, the suggestions made in that intervention do not seem to have been picked up by local educators. With brief reference to two positive school models, the complex issues in research on minority education are discussed.

Spreekvaardigheidstoetsing

At higher levels of second language proficiency, the speaking skill is frequently measured in interviews, but the use of guided tests and group discussions is common too and can improve efficiency. Guided test and discussion create rather different speech situations and might well elicitate dissimilar kinds of oral production: the informal setting of group discussion is certainly less 'anxiety-provoking' and elicitates more natural speech, but it may lead to the use of elementary and unmonitored, minimally correct speech. In this article we report on a small-scale empirical investigation intended to lay bare differences between the language used in a guided test and in a group discussion at the level of 1st year university students of French. Although the discussion subject was defined in such a way that it would enable students to discuss a rather wide range of aspects, even superficial analysis of guided test and discussion subject suggested the first to be more content valid: this quality manifested itself in the higher proportion of different words used in the guided test answers. In other respects, there were no systematic differences between test and discussion: proportions of unique words and of less frequent words, in relation to the number of different words, were nearly the same in the two kinds of speech production. Contrary to intuitive expectation, the number of lexical and grammatical errors was greater in test production (i.e. in the formal setting) than in discussion, the guided test being perhaps a more demanding task, but the possible conclusion that the overall quality of second language use was less good in the guided test was not supported by other findings: mean scores of the three raters did not show systematic differences between test and discussion. Correlations between test scores and discussion scores were about .77, suggesting that as tests of speaking proficiency when the criterion is correctness, guided test and discussion are not as different as they may seem. The main difference between the two is in rater reliability: interrater correlations for the test were about .82; for the discussion the mean of three correlations was .52, but two of them approximated .60. One of the problems of rating discussions may be the rather unequal participation of the members of the group. The quality of discussion as a speaking proficiency test can, in our opinion, be improved by defining its subject in such a way that the aspects discussed will be sufficiently diverse and by training or instructing students: they should all participate actively and pay attention to regular turn-taking.

Soft X-ray emission studies of metal-hydrogen bonding states in zirconium-based laves phase hydrides

Parameters of X-ray L emission spectra of all transition metals in the system of Laves phase hydrides ZrVMeH x (Me ≡ Cr, Fe, Co, Cu) have been analysed. The analysis shows unequal participation of valence d states of intermetallic components in metal-hydrogen bonding. Different energy positions of hydrogen atoms in tetrahedral interstitial sites formed by different sets of metal atoms cause splitting of the hydride subband of Zr Lβ 2.15 emission spectra. A correlation between characteristics of Zr Lβ 2.15 emission and hydride thermal stability is found. Valence d states of vanadium take part in metal-hydrogen bonding to a lesser extent than those of zirconium. The d states of chromium, iron, cobalt and copper participate still less in bonding with hydrogen.

Economic Contests: Comparative Reward Schemes

Contests are situations in which an individual's reward depends on his performance relative to others. Students are graded on a curve; the candidate with the most votes gets the political office; the underling who performs best is promoted to the executive position. Contests are useful in dealing with indivisible rewards, reducing monitoring costs, and minimizing risks from common uncertainties. They are employed to sort potential participants and, once they have entered, to induce appropriate effort from them. With monitoring precision and prize spreads as potential choice variables, optimal contest structures are derived for fair and unfair contests among equal and unequal participants. The converse problems of climbing-low-ability individuals enter the contest designed for high-ability candidates-and slumming are shown to be manageable.

Differential effects of d,l-amphetamine on licking maintained by electrical hypothalamic stimulation and/or water in rats

The role of the reinforcer as a determinant of the behavioural effects of amphetamine was assessed with a procedure under which response requirements were equated. Eight rats were trained to lick on fixed-ratio schedules of rewarding lateral hypothalamic stimulation and water delivery, respectively. The effects of d,l-amphetamine (0.1–2.0 mg/kg) were investigated in the lateral hypothalamic stimulation condition and compared with the effects of the drug at 1.0 mg/kg in the water condition. Licking maintained by hypothalamic stimulation was increased after amphetamine administration to approximately 200% of control performance at 1.0 mg/kg. At this dose amphetamine administration resulted in a decrease in water maintained licking. A computer analysis of the temporal patterning of licking in both water and stimulation conditions was carried out. This analysis revealed that amphetamine may attenuate the disruptive effects of hypothalamic stimulation on the lick-interrupt cycle. The differential effects of amphetamine on licking maintained by the events may reflect either unequal participation of catecholaminergic circuits in the two types of reward, or anti-inhibitory motor effects of amphetamine.

Involving community representatives in CMHC evaluation and research.

The participation of community representatives and consumers of services in agency planning has been mandated by legislation and the subsequent regulations. However, the representatives' lack of technical knowledge and sophistication frequently makes them unequal participants in the decision-making process. To help increase such sophistication, the program analysis and evaluation section of a large community mental health center has involved or assisted patient and community volunteers in various evaluation and research projects; they include a survey of area housing conditions, a survey of the needs of former inpatients, an evaluation of programs operated by a coalition of community groups, and a community resource listing.

Genetic and physical studies of recombinant plasmids formed between an R plasmid of compatibility group FI and sex factor F of HfrH.

Recombinant plasmids between an R plasmid of the FI group (R162/3) and the sex factor F or HfrH were produced after the conjugal transfer of this R plasmid into HfrH. Three types of recombinant plasmids were identified after the mating of HfrH (R162/3) with recA and rec+ recipients. One specimen of each type (pIP218, pIP222, pIP226) was studied in this report. All three recombinant plasmids carry the same genetic information for resistance to antibiotics (CSSuT) retained from R162/3. pIP218 retained all the other properties from F of HfrH: derepression for pilus synthesis, mobilization of the chromosome for the proximally transferred HfrH genes (thr, leu, proA), interference with T7 propagation, and ability to be cured by acridine orange. pIP222 retained from F of HfrH the derepression for pilus synthesis and the same polarity of chromosome transfer (thr, leu, proA), while pIP226 retained the interference with T7 propagation and acridine orange curing. Physical studies revealed that replication control and/or recovery of F and pIP218 as covalent circles of deoxyribonucleic acid are similar, and are different from R162/3. The new plasmids are more likely the result of a substitutive recombination event than a fusion. We propose genetic maps of these recombinant plasmids, showing the unequal participation of the parental plasmids in their formation.

Slip-Induced Directional Order in Fe-Ni Alloys. II. Experimental Observations

The results of an extensive investigation into the nature of slip-induced directional order in Fe-Ni alloys near the 75% Ni composition are reported in this paper. Single crystal rods of 4–79 moly-Permalloy were swaged in the [111] and [001] orientations, as were crystals of the following orientations subjected to plane strain compression: (001) [100], (001) [110], (110) [001], (110) [1̄12], (110) [1̄10], (111) [1̄12], (112) [1̄10] and (112) [1̄1̄1]. Magnetic torque measurements show that all crystals developed a uniaxial anisotropy upon deformation, with the easy magnetic direction in good agreement with our previous theoretical deductions. In the [001] swaged crystal, deviation of the observed easy axis from the calculated value was rationalized in terms of unequal participation of the expected slip systems. In all cases of plane strain compression, the induced anisotropy constant rose to a maximum value, and then decreased, as the thickness reduction was increased. In one experiment, crystals of a 2%Mo-76% Ni-22%Fe alloy received a long-range-ordering treatment at 475°C for 190 h prior to plane strain compression in the (110) [1̄12] orientation. The anisotropy energy reached a maximum value of 460 000 erg/cm3, the highest value of slip-induced anisotropy thus far reported in Fe-Ni alloys. As for the anisotropy decrease at large reductions, reorientation of slip-induced atom pairs as a result of lattice rotation, is undoubtedly a factor. However, this explanation is not valid for the (110) [1̄12] orientation, which remained stable even after 98% reduction. A more widely applicable mechanism is advanced, whereby the decrease in anisotropy is attributed to randomization of the atom pairs through slip across antiphase ordered domain boundaries, both those grown-in and those created by intersecting slip. Additional observations have been made of the crystallographic texture and magnetic squareness in cold-formed polycrystalline Permalloy tapes, which are currently used as magnetic memory elements in storage devices. The results are satisfactorily explained in terms of slip-induced directional-order theory. Implications of seeded single crystals to these results are discussed.