Unemployed Women Research Articles

No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women's employment, unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries, 1985–2018

AbstractComparative welfare state research as examined the outcomes of active labour market policies (ALMP) and work‐family reconciliation policies by and large been separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro‐level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in ALMP and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are complementary to each other in promoting women's employment rates and reducing women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorises about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. These findings provide support for the notion of welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP achieve this through reducing women's unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also achieve lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns.

Biased Humans, (Un)Biased Algorithms?

Previous research has shown that algorithmic decisions can reflect gender bias. The increasingly widespread utilization of algorithms in critical decision-making domains (e.g., healthcare or hiring) can thus lead to broad and structural disadvantages for women. However, women often experience bias and discrimination through human decisions and may turn to algorithms in the hope of receiving neutral and objective evaluations. Across three studies (N = 1107), we examine whether women’s receptivity to algorithms is affected by situations in which they believe that their gender identity might disadvantage them in an evaluation process. In Study 1, we establish, in an incentive-compatible online setting, that unemployed women are more likely to choose to have their employment chances evaluated by an algorithm if the alternative is an evaluation by a man rather than a woman. Study 2 generalizes this effect by placing it in a hypothetical hiring context, and Study 3 proposes that relative algorithmic objectivity, i.e., the perceived objectivity of an algorithmic evaluator over and against a human evaluator, is a driver of women’s preferences for evaluations by algorithms as opposed to men. Our work sheds light on how women make sense of algorithms in stereotype-relevant domains and exemplifies the need to provide education for those at risk of being adversely affected by algorithmic decisions. Our results have implications for the ethical management of algorithms in evaluation settings. We advocate for improving algorithmic literacy so that evaluators and evaluatees (e.g., hiring managers and job applicants) can acquire the abilities required to reflect critically on algorithmic decisions.

Gender roles and selection mechanisms across contexts: a comparative analysis of the relationship between unemployment, self-perceived health and gender.

Health literature shows that unemployment has a gendered effect on health. However, whether men or women are more affected and why remains unclear. We assume that unemployment harms women less than men because of two mechanisms: social roles theories and health selection. First, the availability and centrality in individuals' lives of roles other than employment may reduce the detrimental effect of unemployment for women. Second, the gendered impact of unemployment on health results from the different ways selection mechanisms operate across genders. Moreover, these two mechanisms may operate differently in different contexts - for example, across different gender regimes. We investigate this by pursuing a three-step comparative approach. The analysis relies on EU-SILC data covering Italy and Sweden for 2004 to 2015 and SOEP data for Germany (1995-2017) and applies correlated dynamic random-effects probit models. While we find weak support for the role of health selection in shaping the relations between unemployment, health, and gender, our empirical results are in line with the hypothesis of a larger gendered effect in older (vs younger) cohorts, western (vs eastern) Germany and Italy (vs. Sweden). Future empirical research needs to directly address the role of gender regimes in moderating such complex relationships.

CLINICAL AND SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF PATIENTS PRESENTING WITH POST-PARTUM PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS - A HOSPITAL BASED STUDY

Introduction: In the critical postpartum period the mother and her infant are the most vulnerable to both physical and emotional problems. Aims & objectives: To study the socio-demographic prole of women diagnosed with postpartum psychiatric conditions. Results: Ninety-eight (98) patients were involved in this study. Conclusions: Postpartum psychiatric disorders seem to occur more commonly in younger mothers, especially belonging to the third decade of life, unemployed women (house wives), women belonging to joint and extended nuclear families or having lower educational status and less social support.

The Associations Between Maternal Socioeconomic Factors and Adequacy of Energy and Macronutrient Intakes in Pregnant Women From Yucatan, Mexico.

Socioeconomic factors influence diet quality during pregnancy. However, a dearth of evidence about the influence on energy and macronutrients adequacy calls for research. To analyze the association between socioeconomic factors and adequacy rates of energy and macronutrient intakes in pregnant women from Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. During September to December 2019, we applied a socioeconomic questionnaire and three 24-hour dietary recalls to 83 pregnant females resident in Merida, Yucatan. Energy and macronutrient intakes were compared with the estimated trimester-specific energy and macronutrient requirements to calculate adequacies (%). Outcome variables were average adequacy of energy, carbohydrates, total fat, and protein intakes and the main predictors were maternal education, monthly family income, working status, and marital status. Descriptive statistics of adequacy were calculated for each category of predictors. The association between socioeconomic factors and outcome variables was analyzed through simple and multiple linear regression models. Adequacy rates of energy and macronutrients decreased as education and familial income levels increased, as well as among unemployed women. Consistently with these results, simple linear regressions showed that years of education, family income, and working status (i.e., women working to earn money), were negatively associated with adequacy rates of energy and macronutrients intakes. When all predictors and covariates were included in a multiple linear regression model, only having a job was significantly associated with adequacy rates. Marital status was not associated with outcomes. Women in disadvantaged socioeconomic conditions (unemployed and low levels of education and familial income) show greater energy and macronutrient intakes.

The Association Between Maternal Employment and Breastfeeding Duration With Household Income in Mexico.

Breastfeeding offers the best nutrition during the first months of life. Scholars have identified a dose-response association between breastfeeding duration and reduced risk for child morbidity and mortality. In upper-middle-income countries, including Mexico, maternal employment has been negatively associated with breastfeeding duration. Despite increasing numbers of women entering the workforce and disproportionately participating in the informal sector, where they are un-entitled to paid maternity leave, little is known about how these factors may affect breastfeeding practices. To determine whether household income moderated the association between maternal employment status (defined as unemployed, formal, and informal full- and part-time employed) and any breastfeeding for ≥ 6 months. We conducted a cross-sectional study using retrospective secondary data from the 2018-2019 Mexican Health and Nutrition Survey. The analytic sample included data about 2,156 children aged 6-36 months. We computed logistic regression models stratified by household income. The association between maternal employment and breastfeeding duration varied by household income. Compared to unemployed women, among lower-income households, children were less likely to be breastfed for ≥ 6 months when the participants was part-time informally employed (AOR = 0.30, 95% CI [0.13, 0.69]). Among higher-income households, children were less likely to be breastfed for ≥ 6 months when the participants was full-time formally employed (AOR = 0.52, 95% CI [0.30, 0.88]). To increase breastfeeding duration, stakeholders need to continue strengthening and enforcing policies among formally employed women, and strategies are urgently needed to support women in the informal sector, particularly those in lower-income households.

Factors affecting the use of herbal products in patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome and their results: case\u2013control study

BackgroundIrritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional bowel disease that is characterized by abdominal pain, discomfort, and changes in the frequency and form of stool without any organic pathology. In this study, the factors that affect the herbal treatment choices of IBS patients and their results were investigated.MethodsIncluded in the study were 248 IBS patients who were over the age of 18. A questionnaire that comprised 25 questions was applied to the participants. Survey questions were asked to the participants regarding their age, place of birth, gender, educational status, demographic details, social standing, socioeconomic status and job, place of residence, and marital status. In addition, The participants were asked about which IBS symptoms they had, from whom they had received the recommendation for use of herbal products, whether the media had an effect on their selection of herbal products, and whether they had benefited from herbal products.ResultsIt was observed that 41.1% of the patients with IBS who participated in the study used herbal medicine, 9.8% of whom used them regularly. It was found that the IBS patients participating in the study made their decision to use herbal products mostly based on the recommendations that they were given by acquaintances (57%) and the media (34%). When the patients were evaluated according to their gender, IBS was found to be more common in unemployed women who had a low level of education, while it was more common in working men (p = 0.015, P < 0.001, respectively). The IBS patients who were single used more herbal products that those who were married (P = 0.036). While the use of herbal herbs and oils was predominant in patients whose recommendation content comprised the media/internet and acquaintances, the herbal treatment content recommended by healthcare professionals consisted of traditional treatments and mixtures (P = 0.012). It was determined that a higher percentage of those who used herbal treatments lived in city centers when compared to those who did not (P < 0.001). In addition, it was determined that patients with constipation used herbal products more than those without (P < 0.001). Among the IBS patients, those who had diarrhea and those who were receiving medical treatment preferred to use significantly less herbal products (P = 0.007 and P = 0.041, respectively). It was found that the patients who visited the Gastroenterology Outpatient Clinic mostly used herbal therapy, while those who visited a family doctor used herbal therapy the least (P = 0.029 and P < 0.001, respectively).ConclusionThe IBS patients revealed whose recommendations they followed when purchasing herbal products, which of the products they preferred, and how useful/beneficial they felt that these products were. In this regard, the addition of training curricula related to herbal treatment for professional healthcare workers will further raise awareness on this topic.

Work-related stress and well-being in association with epigenetic age acceleration: A Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study.

Recent evidence indicates consistent association of low socioeconomic status with epigenetic age acceleration, measured from DNA methylation. As work characteristics and job stressors are crucial components of socioeconomic status, we investigated their association with various measures of epigenetic age acceleration.The study population included employed and unemployed men and women (n=604) from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966. We investigated the association of job strain, effort-reward imbalance and work characteristics with five biomarkers of epigenetic aging (Hannum, Horvath, PhenoAge, GrimAge, and DunedinPoAm).Our results indicate few significant associations between work stress indicators and epigenetic age acceleration, limited to a range of ±2 years, and smoking recording the highest effect on GrimAge age acceleration biomarker between current and no smokers (median difference 4.73 years (IQR 1.18, 8.41). PhenoAgeAA was associated with job strain active work (β=-1.301 95%CI -2.391, -0.212), slowing aging of less than 1.5 years, and working as white-collar slowed aging six months (GrimAgeAA β=-0.683, 95%CI -1.264, -0.102) when compared to blue collars. Association was found for working for more than 40 hours per week that increased the aging over 1.5 years, (HorvathAA β =2.058 95%CI 0.517,3.599, HannumAA β=1.567, 95%CI 0.415,2.719).The pattern of associations was different between women and men and some of the estimated effects are inconsistent with current literature. Our results provide the first evidence of association of work conditions with epigenetic aging biomarkers. However, further epidemiological research is needed to fully understand how work-related stress affects epigenetic age acceleration in men and women in different societies.

Social media and empowerment in hospitality and tourism decision-making: A study among UK Muslim women

Research that explores Muslim women’s hospitality and tourism decision-making is limited. This paper attempts to bring a new perspective to the literature on social media and consumption decisions in the hospitality and tourism sector by focusing on Muslim women as a consumer segment. Based on a survey of 791 Muslim women in the UK, it finds that autonomous self-expression, self-disclosure, and reciprocity to self-disclosure on Facebook were positively related to bonding and bridging social capital, which in turn related positively to their empowerment in hospitality and tourism decision-making. Employment status moderated some of these relations. The paper breaks new ground by bringing together two disparate research strands in the tourism literature: one that focuses on women but ignores religion, and the other that studies Islamic tourism but overlooks the role of women. The findings offer insights into hospitality and tourism marketing strategies aimed at Muslim women. • We combine hospitality/tourism literature with gender, religion and social media. • Social media can empower Muslim women in hospitality/tourism decision-making. • The mechanism of empowerment differed between employed vs. unemployed Muslim women. • Strength of weak ties matters in empowering unemployed women for holiday planning. • The paper offers insights into hospitality/tourism marketing aimed at Muslim women.

Employment effect of large-scale agricultural investment on women empowerment in Gambella Region, Ethiopia

PurposeDespite intense debates about the outcomes of large-scale agricultural investment in developing countries, gender issues and employment effects of such investment on women empowerment are very thin in the literature. The main purpose of this article is, therefore, to examine the effect of women's access to income-earning jobs on their empowerment.Design/methodology/approachThe authors used a quasi-experimental research design and a mixed research approach. The authors collected primary data from 65 employed and 85 unemployed women and ten key informants. Principal component analysis (PCA) and propensity score matching (PSM) techniques were used to construct indexes and assess employment effect.FindingsThe article finds that consistent with the argument of the resource in culture theory, women's employment in large-scale commercial farms does not have an effect on their empowerment level.Practical implicationsThe result implies that the government should strengthen gender sensitization programs and facilitate the formation of well-organized and profitable alternative income generating activities for women in such ways that improve their empowerment.Originality/valueThis article assesses the effect of women employment on their empowerment and contributes to filling gaps in the empirical and theoretical literature. It could also contribute to academic and policy debates in the area of large-scale commercial farming based on the actual evidence.

Adherence and Beliefs to Adjuvant Hormonal Therapy in Patients with Breast Cancer: A Cross-Sectional Study (Conference Paper) #

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women over the world. To reducing reoccurrence and mortality rates, adjuvant hormonal therapy (AHT) is used for a long period. The major barrier to the effectiveness of the treatment is adherence. Adherence to medicines among patients is challenging. Patient beliefs in medications can be positively or negatively correlated to adherence. Objectives: To investigate the extent of adherence and factors affecting adherence, as well as to investigate the association between beliefs and adherence in women with breast cancer taking AHT. Method: A cross-sectional study included 124 Iraqi women with breast cancer recruited from Middle Euphrates Cancer Center. Morisky medication adherence scale (MMAS) and beliefs about medication questionnaires (BMQ) are used to assess adherence and beliefs respectively. Result: 25% of women were fully adherent (MMAS = 8). 83.06% of all women developed side effects from medications received. Side effects and unemployed women were significantly associated with non-adherence. Additionally, there is no significant association between beliefs in medications and adherence. conclusion The enormous percent of poor adherence caused by side effects suggests the need for interventions by educating patients about the importance of their treatment and how to overcome side effects.

Women's empowerment and fertility preferences of married women: analysis of demographic and health survey'2016 in Timor-Leste.

A recently independent state, Timor-Leste, is progressing towards socioeconomic development, prioritizing women empowerment while its increased fertility rate (4.1) could hinder the growth due to an uncontrolled population. Currently, limited evidence shows that indicators of women's empowerment are associated with fertility preferences and rates. The objective of this study was to assess the association between women empowerment and fertility preferences of married women aged 15 to 49 years in Timor-Leste using nationally representative survey data. The study was conducted using the data of the latest Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey 2016. The study included 4040 rural residents and 1810 urban residents of Timor-Leste. Multinomial logistic regression has been performed to assess the strength of association between the exposures indicating women's empowerment and outcome (fertility preference). After adjusting the selected covariates, the findings showed that exposures that indicate women empowerment in DHS, namely, the employment status of women, house and land ownership, ownership of the mobile phone, and independent bank account status, contraceptive use, and the attitude of women towards negotiating sexual relations are significantly associated with fertility preferences. The study shows higher the level of education, the less likely were the women to want more children, and unemployed women were with a higher number of children. Our study also found that the attitude of violence of spouses significantly influenced women's reproductive choice. However, employment had no significant correlation with decision-making opportunities and contraceptive selection due to a lack of substantial data. Also, no meaningful data was available regarding decision-making and fertility preferences. Our findings suggest that women's empowerment governs decision-making in fertility preferences, causing a decline in the fertility rate.

Level and predictors of breast cancer awareness among Saudi women: A nationwide study.

Breast cancer occurs when abnormal breast cells grow rapidly and uncontrollably. Early detection and intervention have been established to significantly decrease mortality rates. There is a lack of focused research investigating the degree of breast cancer awareness among Saudi women. Thus, this study aimed to fill this gap by conducting a nationwide survey on a large pool of women. A cross-sectional web-based nationwide study. This study targeted Saudi women from all regions of the country and was conducted from 20 August to 3 September 2021. The study used the Breast Cancer Awareness Measure questionnaire to measure breast cancer awareness. This study was approved by the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center institutional review board. Overall, poor breast cancer awareness scores were demonstrated by 71% of the participants. Unemployed women were more likely to have poor breast cancer awareness. Our study reports an alarmingly high level of poor overall breast cancer awareness in Saudi women. Interventions should be implemented to combat this lack of awareness.

Fuzzy model for estimating the number of unemployed women on parental leave

The article is devoted to the problem of underutilization of the country's labor potential in the face of women with young children. The relevance of research in the field of support for families with young children and the development of additional measures to support them is further explained. The authors propose to use a mathematical model based on soft computing for predictive estimation of the number of women with children from 0 to 3 years old, who are ready to go to work, taking into account the age of the child. The calculation of numerical indicators is based on the prediction of the Federal Statistics Service of the Russian Federation for the estimated population of the Russian Federation in the context of ages up to 2035.

A Quantitative Approach: Hope Labor Among Turkish Female Bloggers

This study investigates the blogosphere in Turkey from a gendered perspective, focusing on how blogging reshapes women’s cultural and social environment. Based on a quantitative approach, a snowballing survey method is conducted, to explore the spaces within which women seek “self-realization,” “self-formation” and “publicity” in the digital world, particularly, through the practice of blogging. There are two main questions that undergird this project: “Do women, performing in social media, unintentionally become subjugated to a form of exploitation and alienation, as the literature on digital labor suggests?” “Is hope labor is influential in female bloggers’ blog usage and content writing? Research findings demonstrate that these women, while constructing their identities as bloggers, incorporate to the neoliberal restructuring of Turkey via articulation of blogging with the global market system. Although blogs provide employment opportunities and economic gains, main motivation behind women’s blogging practices remain to be self-realization and self-fulfillment, leaving hope labor less influential in blog writing. Traditional views like unemployed women participate to public sphere via blogging activities wriggling out of their inherited gender roles also remain to be an over determination since employed women feel more emancipated through blogging.

Trend and Determinants of Mortality Among Women of Reproductive Age: A Twelve-Year Open Cohort Study in Eastern Ethiopia.

Background: With only less than a decade left till 2030, it is essential to research the burden and trends of women of reproductive age (WRA) mortality in order to design appropriate interventions toward achieving goal three of the sustainable development goals (SDGs), good health and well-being. For several low-income countries, such data are often lacking or sometimes extrapolated from non-representative facility-based studies. In this paper, we presented trends, causes, and determinants of mortality among reproductive-age women under follow-up for 12 years through the Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS) located in eastern Ethiopia.Methods: We used 12 years of (2008 to 2019) open cohort data of women aged 15–49 living in Kersa HDSS in Eastern Ethiopia. In the HDSS, data on socio-demographic and basic household conditions are recorded for every household member at enrollment, and data on vital events such as births, deaths, and migration were collected and updated biannually as the event happened. Mortality was determined by automated verbal autopsy (InterVA) algorism. We assessed trends in women's reproductive age mortality and the associated determinants using crude and adjusted Cox regression models.Results: In the 12-years cohort, we followed 74,790 women of reproductive age for 339,909.26 person-years-at-risk of observation (PYO), of whom 919 died. Overall, the standardized mortality rate was 270 per 100,000 PYO. There was a notable increase in mortality in the first 3 years (2009 to 2011) which then declined significantly (p = 0.0001) until 2019. Most of the deaths were caused by HIV/AIDS (27.88%) and pulmonary tuberculosis (10.62%). In the adjusted Cox regression analysis, the hazard of death was higher among rural residents (AHR, 2.03: 95% CI: 1.60–2.58), unemployed women (AHR, 1.50: 95% CI: 1.19–1.89), and women with no formal education (AHR, 1.24: 95% CI: 1.01–1.52).Conclusion: The study showed a high number of women of reproductive age are still dying mainly due to causes for which preventable strategies are known and have been successfully implemented. The study identified that the main causes of death were related to HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis, and there was a higher hazard of mortality among rural residents, unemployed women, and those with no formal education, who need effective implementation in achieving the SDG three.

Innovative Digital and Experiential Blended Learning Non-Formal Programme for Community Animators: Lessons learned

An innovative blended learning non-formal programme was launched in 2018-2019 for professionals and volunteers, who were encouraged to develop their own social competences in order to work directly as community animators with vulnerable groups and promote social inclusion in Greece. The intervention, which lay within an ongoing experimental European project, COMANITY, was built upon the challenges emerged from harsh economic restraints, rising demand, restricted supply and diminishing resources in our society. Within this context, youth services are urged to increase their efficiency and effectiveness, encourage civil society to fill the gaps in service provision left by ‘mainstream’ supply and try to support young people to ‘help their peers’ by getting more of them to volunteer. Community Animator’s non-formal blended learning training programme was carried out online programme delivered to 109 participants out of 947 who applied and through an experiential face to face workshop that was delivered to 14 unemployed women aiming to raise awareness and critical understanding of the concepts of democracy, equality, advocacy, human rights and social cohesion. Peer learning methods and an action research methodology were employed in order to enhance young participants to act as agents for change and develop a holding environment for those youth at risk to be marginalized. By working on their own capacities and motives, personal attitudes and possible dysfunctional assumptions, young participants actively shared and confronted critically their views and concerns, realized the impact of space and time on their civic engagement and organized themselves in social action. The present study discusses the profile and satisfaction level of participants in the online digital programme and the profile and satisfaction level of participants on the blended learning experiential programme. The data suggests that blended programmes are necessary for developing action research skills and enhancing the role of community animators, even though online programmes on their own can also assist in raising awareness about the role of community animators.

Assess level of stress among working and non-working women residing in selected areas in a view to develop an information booklet

Assess level of stress among working and non-working women residing in selected areas in a view to develop an information booklet. Objectives: 1. To assess level of stress among working women. 2. To assess level of stress among non-working women. 3. To compare the level of stress among working and non-working women. Material and Methods: The research approach adopted in this study is Evaluatory approach. Non-experimental descriptive comparative research design was used. The sample were selected by non-probability convenient sampling technique sample size was 120 (60working women and 60 non-working women). Results: 1. 85% of the working women had severe stress (score 18-25) and 15% of them had moderate stress (Score 26-33). 2. 35% of the non-working women had severe stress (score 18-25) and 65% of them had moderate stress (Score 26-33). 3. Average stress score in employed women was 22.5 which was 26.2 in unemployed women. Z-value for this test was 7.8 with 118 degrees of freedom. Corresponding p-value was small (less than 0.05), the null hypothesis is rejected. The stress level among working is significantly more than that in non-working women. Conclusion: The stress level among working is significantly more than that in non-working women.

Decomposing the gender reservation wage gap in Italy: A regional perspective

AbstractWe investigate the determinants of the reservation wage gap between unemployed men and women, using data from the Italian Labour Force Survey. We conduct detailed decomposition analysis at the mean and at different percentiles of the reservation wage distribution using the Recentered Influence Function regression approach. Given the regional differences in labor market participation and employment rates across Italy, we focus on regional differences in the gender reservation wage gap. We find evidence of a positive gender reservation wage gap, which is highest in the South, with men reporting higher reservation wages across all regions and at all percentiles of the reservation wage distribution. The decomposition results suggest that, while a large part of the gender gap in reservation wages is explained by personal characteristics such as education and age, a significant portion of the gap is explained by different job preferences (especially commuting and working time preferences) between men and women. We also find evidence of differences in the relative effects of personal, household and job characteristics across regions, and at different percentiles of the reservation wage distribution.

Seroprevalence of HIV Infection among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinic in General Hospital Kumo, Gombe State Nigeria

Seroprevalence of HIV among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic in Kumo General Hospital was studied in 350 sera. The sera were obtained from women of different age group, occupation, social background including tradition (by tradition we mean people’s ways of life common in that locality). Screening was carried out using Abbot determine test strips and Gene 11 HIV 1 and 2. The Bio-data information of the women was gathered through questionnaire administration. Out of the 350 sera collected, 12(3.4%) were reactive for HIV. There was high prevalence among age group 21-30 (2.1%) followed by age group 11-20 (0.9%). High prevalence was also observed among the unemployed pregnant women (2.1%). Women who had no risk factor were also noted to have had high prevalence (1.7%); Spouses of seropositive pregnant women and those with no risk factor had 42% and (33%) prevalence respectively.