Undocumented Migrant Women Research Articles

Perinatal mortality among pregnant undocumented migrants in Norway 1999–2020: A register-based population study

BackgroundIrregular legal status is a recognized health risk factor in the context of migration. However, undocumented migrants are rarely included in health surveys and register studies. Adverse perinatal outcomes are especially important because they have long-term consequences and societal risk factors are modifiable. In this study, we compare perinatal outcomes in undocumented migrants to foreign-born and Norwegian-born residents, using a population-based register. MethodsWe included women 18–49 years old giving birth to singletons as registered in the Medical Birth Registry of Norway from 1999 to 2020. Women were categorized as ‘undocumented migrants’ (without an identity number), ‘documented migrants’ (with an identity number and born abroad), and ‘non-migrants’ (with an identity number and born in Norway). The main outcome was perinatal mortality, i.e., death of a foetus ≥ gestational week 22, or neonate up to seven days after birth. We used log-binominal regression to estimate the association between legal status and perinatal mortality, adjusting for several maternal pre-gestational and gestational factors. Direct standardization was used to adjust for maternal region of origin. Ethical approvalRegional Ethical Committee (REK South East, case number 68329). ResultsWe retrieved information on 5856 undocumented migrant women who gave birth during the study period representing 0.5% of the 1 247 537 births in Norway. Undocumented migrants had a relative risk of 6.17 (95% confidence interval 5.29 ̶7.20) of perinatal mortality compared to non-migrants and a relative risk of 4.17 (95% confidence interval 3.51 ̶4.93) compared to documented migrants. Adjusting for maternal region of origin attenuated the results slightly. ConclusionBeing undocumented is strongly associated with perinatal mortality in the offspring. Disparities were not explained by maternal origin or maternal health factors, indicating that social determinants of health through delays in receiving adequate care and factors negatively influencing gestational length may be of importance.

Displacing power for displaced people: The inaccessibility of maternity care for undocumented migrant women in the UK’s hostile environment.

Displacing power for displaced people: The inaccessibility of maternity care for undocumented migrant women in the UK’s hostile environment.

The effect of limited access to antenatal care on pregnancy experiences and outcomes among undocumented migrant women in Europe: a systematic review.

Women who are undocumented migrants in Europe encounter a variety of challenges while trying to access health services, including restricted access to antenatal care (ANC) despite the importance of ANC to the well-being of mothers and their infants. This study's aim was to examine the effect that limited access to antenatal care has on the pregnancy experiences and outcomes of undocumented migrant (UM) women in Europe. Systematic searches were done on PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, EBSCO CINAHL Plus, and BioMed Central. From the search results, only primary research articles that reported on the pregnancy outcomes and experiences of undocumented migrants were selected. A meta-analysis was not possible because this review included information from both qualitative and quantitative studies. The data that was taken from the included publications was organised, analysed, using the Microsoft Excel programme, and then meta-synthesised. Twelve papers from seven different European nations-Belgium, France, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and England-were included in this systematic review. Eight of the studies aimed to explore the access to and utilization of ANC by undocumented migrant women and the related pregnancy outcomes. Two of the included studies examined the pregnancy experiences of UMs and two examined the perinatal risks associated with living as a migrant with no legal status. Although heterogeneous in their specific findings most of the studies showed undocumented immigrants are more likely to experience unfavourable pregnancy outcomes and experience greater anxiety and worries due to a variety of factors than documented migrants and registered citizens. This review's conclusions demonstrate the pressing need for policy modifications and healthcare reforms in Europe to address the problems associated with undocumented migrants' restricted access to antenatal care. It also highlights the urgent need for structural changes that will give this vulnerable population's health and well-being a higher priority. It is not just an issue of health equality but also a humanitarian obligation to address the many obstacles and difficulties undocumented migrant women endure during pregnancy.

Giving birth on the way to the clinic: undocumented migrant women’s perceptions and experiences of maternal healthcare accessibility along the Thailand–Myanmar border

BackgroundMillions of women give birth annually without the support of a trained birth attendant. Generally and globally, countries provide maternal health services for their citizens but there is a coverage gap for undocumented migrant women who often can’t access the same care due to their legal status. The objective of this investigation is to explore undocumented migrants’ experiences and perceptions of maternal healthcare accessibility.MethodsWe held focus groups discussions with 64 pregnant women at 3 migrant health clinics on the Thailand–Myanmar border and asked how they learned about the clinic, their health care options, travel and past experiences with birth services. In this context undocumented women could sign up for migrant health insurance at the clinic that would allow them to be referred for tertiary care at government hospitals if needed.ResultsWomen learned about care options through a network approach often relying on information from community members and trusted care providers. For many, choice of alternate care was limited by lack of antenatal care services close to their homes, limited knowledge of other services and inability to pay fees associated with hospital care. Women travelled up to 4 h to get to the clinic by foot, bicycle, tractor, motorcycle or car, sometimes using multiple modes of transport. Journeys from the Myanmar side of the border were sometimes complicated by nighttime border crossing closures, limited transport and heavy rain.ConclusionsUndocumented migrant women in our study experienced a type of conditional or variable accessibility where time of day, transport and weather needed to align with the onset of labour to ensure that they could get to the migrant clinic on time to give birth. We anticipate that undocumented migrants in other countries may also experience conditional accessibility to birth care, especially where travel is necessary due to limited local services. Care providers may improve opportunities for undocumented pregnant women to access maternal care by disseminating information on available services through informal networks and addressing travel barriers through mobile services and other travel supports.Trial registration The research project was approved by Research Ethics Committee at the Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University (FAM-2560-05204), and the Department of Community Medicine and Global Health at the University of Oslo—Norwegian Centre for Research Data (58542).

Food hospitality and the negotiation of subjectivities through meals in the context of migration: case studies from Belgium

ABSTRACT This article focuses on the ways in which food enables undocumented migrants to find a place in the context of forced displacement, transit mobility and unstable settlement. The analysis is based on qualitative data collected within the framework of two research projects studying different forms of mobilization involving undocumented migrants in Belgium. In both fieldworks, hospitality dynamics were observed to develop through food. In one case, undocumented migrants hosted by Belgian citizens cooked meals to thank them for their hospitality as well as to eat something they like and to regain some power of action in their everyday life. In the other case, a group of undocumented migrant women living in a collective housing prepared “African food” for Belgian people to create spaces of intercultural encounter, to sensitize to the cause of undocumented people and to gain some money. Relying on the literature on food and hospitality crossed with migration (and gender) issues, and focusing on the relationship between hosts and guests, we aim at highlighting how migrants’ subjectivities and agency are negotiated through food practices in different hospitality situations involving undocumented migrants and local people.

Use of emergency primary care among pregnant undocumented migrants over ten years: an observational study from Oslo, Norway

Objective To compare consultations with pregnant undocumented migrants at emergency primary health care to consultations with pregnant residents of Norway. Design A cross-sectional study of consultations at several time points. Setting The study was conducted at the Oslo Accident and Emergency Outpatient Clinic (OAEOC), the main emergency primary care service in Oslo, Norway. Subjects Consultations with pregnant patients without a Norwegian identity number seeking care at the Department of Emergency General Practice at the OAEOC were identified through a manual search of registration lists from 2009 to 2019. The consultations were categorized by women’s residency status as ‘probably documented migrant’, ‘uncertain migrant status’, or ‘probably undocumented migrant’. We also extracted aggregated data for women with a Norwegian identity number (i.e. residents) presenting in consultations with pregnancy-related (ICPC-2 chapter W) conditions. Main outcome measures Manchester Triage System urgency level at presentation, and hospitalization. Results Among 829 consultations with female patients categorized as probably undocumented migrants, we found 27.1% (225/829) with pregnant women. About half of the pregnant women (54.6% (123/225)) presented with a pregnancy-related condition. Pregnant women that were probably undocumented migrants had an increased risk of being triaged with a high level of urgency at presentation (relative risk (RR) 1.86, 95% CI 1.14–3.04) and being hospitalized (RR 1.68, 95% CI 1.21–2.34), compared to pregnant residents. Conclusion Pregnant undocumented migrants were more severely sick when presenting to emergency primary care services than pregnant residents. Increased access to primary care and emergency primary care services for pregnant undocumented migrants is urgently needed.

Risk of stillbirth and preterm birth among undocumented pregnant migrant women in Denmark: A retrospective case-control study.

To examine the associations between undocumented pregnant migrant women and the risk of experiencing stillbirth or preterm birth. A retrospective case-control study based on nationwide registers from Statistics Denmark and hospital journals from the seven largest hospital wards in Denmark from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2018. A total of 882 undocumented pregnant migrant women and 3528 matched controls (both documented migrant and non-migrant women) were included. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the risk of undocumented pregnant migrant women experiencing (a) stillbirth and (b) preterm birth compared with the control group. Of the undocumented pregnant migrant women, 33.3% were EU citizens, 16.2% were applicants for residence and 50.5% had an unknown basis for residence. The mean age of the undocumented pregnant migrant women was 28.4 years, whereas the mean age of women in the control group was 30.9 years. Higher adjusted odds of experiencing stillbirth (aOR 3.50; 95% CI 1.31-9.38) and preterm birth (aOR 1.41; 95% CI 1.04-1.93) were observed among the undocumented pregnant migrant women compared with the control group. The basis of residence was not associated with higher odds of experiencing stillbirth or preterm birth. We found a higher risk of stillbirth and preterm birth among the undocumented pregnant migrant women than in the control group. Our findings suggest a need to increase the focus on providing access to antenatal care among those women currently excluded from this care.

Tactics employed by healthcare providers in the humanitarian sector to meet the sexual and reproductive healthcare needs of undocumented migrant women in Denmark: A qualitative study

ObjectivesTo explore the tactics adopted by healthcare providers in the humanitarian aid sector to meet the sexual and reproductive healthcare needs of undocumented immigrant women whose entitlements in the Danish national health services are restricted to emergency care only. MethodsWe conducted six semi-structured interviews between January 2020 and April 2020 with healthcare providers working across four health centers providing sexual and reproductive healthcare to undocumented migrants in Copenhagen. The interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed and subjected to a thematic network analysis. ResultsHealthcare providers adopted a number of tactics tomeet the SRH needs of undocumented women. They used their position as volunteers to gain women’s trust, drew on personal networks in the public healthcare sector, accompanied women to public hospitals, worked with professionals from the migrant communities, and promoted secondary prevention using their cultural knowledge to respond to the SRH needs of undocumented women. Results highlight that while “informal” settings enable these flexible tactics, fully meeting the SRH needs of undocumented migrants is negatively affected by their limited entitlements to public healthcare. ConclusionThese tactics demonstrated the efforts of healthcare providers to use the NGO space to try to achieve SRH of undocumented women in a restrictive public healthcare sector. Nonetheless, these tactics, particularly the use of personal networks, did not always result in undocumented migrants having their SRH needs met, particularly in cases of serious illness, demonstrating a concerning gap in care.

Severe maternal morbidity among undocumented migrant women in the PreCARE prospective cohort study.

To assess the risk of severe maternal outcomes among migrant women, considering both their legal status and birthplace; in Europe, migrant women, especially from sub-Saharan Africa, have higher risks of adverse maternal outcomes compared with non-migrants and legal status, a component of migrant condition, may be an important, and potentially actionable, risk factor. Prospective cohort study. Four maternity units around Paris in 2010-12. A total of 9599 women with singleton pregnancies. Legal status was categorised in four groups: reference group of non-migrant native Frenchwomen, legal migrants with French or European citizenship, other legal migrants with non-European citizenship, and undocumented migrants. The risk of severe maternal morbidity was assessed with multivariable logistic regression models according to women's legal status and birthplace. Binary composite criterion of severe maternal morbidity. Undocumented migrants had resided for less time in France, experienced social isolation, linguistic barriers and poor housing conditions more frequently and had a pre-pregnancy medical history at lower risk than other migrants. The multivariable analysis showed that they had a higher risk of severe maternal morbidity than non-migrants (33/715 [4.6%] versus 129/4523 [2.9%]; adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.68, 95% CI 1.12-2.53). This increased risk was significant for undocumented women from sub-Saharan Africa (18/308 [5.8%] versus 129/4523 [2.9%]; aOR 2.26, 95% CI 1.30-3.91), and not for those born elsewhere (15/407 [3.7%] versus 129/4523 [2.9%]; aOR 1.44, 95% CI 0.82-2.53). Undocumented migrants are the migrant subgroup at highest risk of severe maternal morbidity, whereas the prevalence of risk factors does not appear to be higher in this subgroup. This finding suggests that their interaction with maternity care services may be sub-optimal. Undocumented migrants, especially those born in sub-Saharan Africa, have the highest risk of Severe Maternal Morbidity.

317 Severe maternal morbidity among undocumented migrant women in the precare prospective cohort study

Introduction and aims: In European countries, migrant women, especially those from sub-Saharan Africa, have a higher risk of adverse maternal outcomes than non-migrants. However, the mechanisms of these inequalities remain poorly understood. In addition to geographical origin, legal status could also be an important, and potentially actionable, determinant of maternal risk. Our aim was to assess the risk of severe maternal outcomes among migrant women, considering both their legal status and birthplace.

ECONOMIC EXPERIENCE OF MIGRANT WOMEN RESIDING IN GAUTENG, SOUTH AFRICA: A SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD PERSPECTIVE

This study investigated the correlation between poverty and the economic experiences of undocumented migrant women residing in a community in Gauteng province, South Africa. Through using a qualitative methodology, we present evidence from interviews and a focus group conducted with 20 women who relate their experiences. Adopting a sustainable livelihood perspective, this article presents the biographical profiles of the women and discusses three themes: social capital influences, tapping into human capital skills, and access to financial capital. This article contributes to debates on promoting gender justice and sustainable livelihoods as a prerequisite for poverty alleviation in Africa. Keywords: economic experiences, migrant women, sustainable livelihoods, undocumented

Demographic characteristics, medical needs and utilisation of antenatal care among pregnant undocumented migrants living in Denmark between 2011 and 2017.

Introduction: An estimated 22,900-28,900 individuals live undocumented in Denmark, of whom many are women of reproductive age. Undocumented migrants in Denmark who are pregnant only have legal rights to health care in emergencies, which may lead to under-utilisation of antenatal care, despite the possibility of these women seeking antenatal care through informal networks. This study aimed to describe the demographics, general medical needs and prevalence of induced abortions among pregnant undocumented migrant women. Further, we aimed to investigate if the women received antenatal services as recommended, focusing on the timing of their first entry to antenatal care and the number of antenatal visits. Methods: This was a retrospective cross-sectional study. We used data from medical records at a health clinic managed by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in Denmark from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2017. Data regarding 679 pregnant women were included in descriptive and regression analyses. Results: The women had a mean age of 28.7 years, originated from 78 different countries and had diverse migration backgrounds. Among the 679 included women, there were 119 pregnancy-related complications. Regarding the utilisation of antenatal services, 52.6% had a late first attendance to antenatal care, and the likelihood of a late first attendance was highest among 35- to 44-year-olds. The majority (92.6%) of the women did not have the recommended number of antenatal care visits, and this was evident across all regions of origin. Logistic regression showed variation in utilisation of antenatal services according to age and region of origin. Conclusions: A quarter of the study population attended the health clinic requesting pregnancy termination. The pregnant undocumented migrants had few medical complications and predominantly attended the health clinic for antenatal care. However, some did attend the clinic with general or pregnancy-related medical conditions. Almost half of the study population had a late first attendance to antenatal care, and the vast majority did not have the recommended number of antenatal care visits. These results call for consideration as to whether health care for pregnant undocumented migrants should be formally available and free of charge.

"It's a life you're playing with": A qualitative study on experiences of NHS maternity services among undocumented migrant women in England.

BackgroundUndocumented migrant women experience complex barriers to maternity services, are less likely to receive the recommended level of maternity care, and have poorer obstetric outcomes than non-migrant women. There are concerns increasing restrictions on entitlement to health services have a detrimental impact on access to services and obstetric outcomes, particularly among undocumented migrant women. The study aimed to investigate the experiences of undocumented migrant women who have been pregnant in England, and factors affecting access to care and health outcomes.MethodsWe conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews June–December 2017 with a purposive sample of migrant women born outside the UK (aged>18) who had experiences of pregnancy and undocumented status (without permission to reside) in the UK, recruited through Doctors of the World (DOTW) UK. Interpreting services were used on request. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed using thematic analysis. Ethical approval: Imperial College London Research Ethics Committee (ICREC reference: 17IC3924).ResultsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 participants, 10 of whom had their first antenatal appointment after the national target of 13 weeks, and nine of whom reported complications. Themes defining women's experiences of pregnancy included: restricted agency, intersecting stressors, and an ongoing cycle of precarity, defined by legal status, social isolation, and economic status.ConclusionsThis study provides new evidence of women's experiences of pregnancy in the UK in the context of increasingly restrictive health policies including charging and data sharing. Six recommendations are made to ensure the UK and other migrant receiving countries work towards reducing inequalities and achieving national and global targets for maternal and child health and universal health coverage.

Reproductive health issues of undocumented migrant women living in Istanbul

Objectives Compared with the indigenous population of a host country, undocumented migrant women often experience more complicated reproductive health issues and fewer women access preventive gynaecology services. The aims of the study were to identify the reproductive health issues and demand for health services of undocumented migrant women living in Istanbul. Methods The population of this cross-sectional, descriptive study comprised 236 undocumented migrant women living in Istanbul, recruited using the snowball method. Data were collected through a three part questionnaire written in Turkish, Arabic, Persian, English and French. Results The mean age of the participants was 27.6 ± 7.0 years; 47% were transit migrants; 72% became pregnant in Turkey; 42.2% had had an unplanned pregnancy; 70.8% had received antenatal care; 10.4% had had an unplanned home birth; and 21.2% reported menstrual irregularity. Only 5.5% reported that they had had a gynaecological examination and only 4.2% had taken part in a screening programme. Conclusion Participants’ primary reproductive health problems were unwanted pregnancy and menstrual irregularity. While demand for family planning, regular gynaecological examinations and screening programmes was low, demand for antenatal and childbirth care was high.

NHS charging for maternity care in England: Its impact on migrant women

NHS charging for ‘overseas visitors’ is recognised as deterring migrants from accessing necessary health care. Even though maternity care does not have to be paid in advance, fear of four-figure bills and Home Office sanctions against people with unpaid debts has significant adverse effects on women affected. Undocumented migrant women, without the right to work or benefits, are among the most excluded and vulnerable people living in the UK today, risking destitution especially in pregnancy. Despite government guidance, hospital charging procedures pay scant attention to the welfare of vulnerable migrants, with women who are unable to pay harassed by debt collectors. Charging such women deters them from accessing maternity care and has a negative impact on their physical and mental health. The article, based on a study of women who were charged, argues that charging for maternity care undermines NHS principles and inherently discriminates against women.

Exploring the views of undocumented migrant women on access to maternity services in the UK

Abstract Background Migrant women face inequalities in access to health-care services and are known to experience poorer maternal and child outcomes than women born in the UK. The development of more restrictive health policies in the UK and Europe, including being denied or charged for healthcare at maternity services, may be exacerbating these outcomes, particularly among undocumented migrant women without permission to reside. We investigated undocumented migrant women's experiences of accessing maternity services in the UK and their impact on health outcomes. Methods We did semi-structured in-depth qualitative interviews with a purposive sample of migrant women (born outside the UK) who were aged 18 and over, and had experiences of pregnancy in the UK whilst undocumented. Participants were recruited through the Doctors of the World UK clinic. Interviews were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. Results We did interviews with 20 undocumented women (age range 31-40 years; mainly from Africa and Asia). Among participants, of whom 13 were pregnant at the time of interview, 10 (50%) first accessed antenatal care late (after the national target of 13 weeks). Women described an ongoing cycle of precariousness, defined by their legal status, social isolation, and poor economic status. Women reported receiving bills of up to £11,500 for maternity services (range £3,072 to £11.500). The impact of their experiences meant that they were deterred from seeking timely health care and were reluctant to present to health services, with women reporting fear and loss of trust in the health system. Conclusions These women's narratives illustrated the potential deterrent and detrimental impact of increasingly restrictive health policies on women's access to care and their health. UK and European health policies must be equitable, non-discriminatory, and better align with our commitments to promote universal health coverage among all individual residing in the region. Key messages Increasingly restrictive health policies may have a deterrent and detrimental impact on migrant women’s access to health care. Undocumented migrant women in the UK reported fear and loss of trust in the health system.

HIV/AIDS, Women’s migration from Plumtree to Johannesburg, and changing perceptions about disease and the diseased, 1995-2006

This paper seeks to show how migration of the women from Plumtree district to Johannesburg between 1995 and 2006 shaped the spread of HIV/AIDS disease. The focus of this study is twofold: (1) to outline how the migration of women from rural Plumtree exposed them to HIV transmission beginning from their journey to Johannesburg, and (2) to understand societal perceptions on women who had HIV/AIDS. The paper also highlights how the terminology used in different epochs illustrate the changing perceptions about disease and the diseased women between 1995 and 2006. By so doing, the paper engages with the language used reflecting on the interface of women’s migration, with HIV/AIDS. Above all, the paper contributes to the literature on migration, women and HIV and opines that although migration has a negative impact on both men and women who leave their countries of origin, women suffer more and this is also complicated by the HIV/AIDS disease. The paper uses secondary sources and draws from life history interviews conducted with undocumented migrant women from Plumtree district who live (d) and work(ed) in Johannesburg to explore the lives of these migrant women living with HIV/AIDS.

“Caged Women”: Migration, Mobility and Access to Health Services in Texas and Arizona

ABSTRACT Borderlands are redefined by the hardening of borders, through border walls, increased internal controls, toughened immigration laws, which creates a climate of fear for undocumented migrants. Over the past years, some states and cities in the United States have enacted restrictive policies regarding access to State-provided services, such as healthcare. The impact of these laws needs to be assessed through the gender lens. This paper uses the metaphor of cages to delve on the study of undocumented migrant women’s access to healthcare services when the intersection of immigration and healthcare laws creates a restrictive environment, through the case study of Arizona and Texas. It first analyzes the impact on undocumented migrant women’s physical health, addressing preventive and emergency care and reproductive and sexual healthcare. Secondly, it addresses the impact of that intersection on women’s psychological health, assessing how these policies, when combined, worsen the impacts of past traumas and create new ones while restricting access to psychological services. It demonstrates that undocumented migrant women are affected in specific ways by the intersection of immigration and healthcare laws as it exacerbates the multiple oppressions they experience as low-income women of color without legal status.

Building a Life Despite It All: Structural Oppression and Resilience of Undocumented Latina Migrants in Central Florida

Immigrants to the United States encounter a multitude of challenges upon arriving. This is further complicated if migrants arrive without legal status and even more so if these migrants are women. My research engages with Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality to examine interlocking systems of oppression faced by undocumented migrant women living in Central Florida. I worked mainly in Apopka, Florida, with women who migrated from Mexico, Central America, and South America. I found that three broad identity factors shaped their experiences of life in the U.S.: gender, undocumented status, and Latinx identity. The last factor specifically affected women’s lives through not only their own assertions of their identity, but also outsider projections of interviewees’ race, ethnicity, and culture. My research examines how these identity factors affected my interviewees and limited their access to employment, healthcare, and education. Through a collaborative research project involving work with Central Floridian non-pro t and activist organizations, I conducted interviews and participant observation to answer my research questions. Through my research, I found that undocumented Latina migrants in Central Florida face structural vulnerabilities due to gendered and racist immigration policies and social systems, the oppressive effects of which were only partly mitigated by women’s involvement with community organizations. My research exposes fundamental and systemic failures within U.S. immigration policies and demonstrates that U.S. immigration policy must change to address intersectional oppression faced by undocumented Latina migrants.

Navigating the Informal Economy: Social Networks among Undocumented Zimbabwean Migrant Women Hairdressers in Durban, South Africa

This ethnographic study examines how undocumented Zimbabwean migrant women hairdressers in Durban (South Africa) use their social networks to navigate the informal sector. It draws on 15 in-depth interviews, participant observation, and three focus group discussions. The article focuses attention on the precarious employment situation of young migrants working in the urban informal economy and how their social networks play a two-fold supportive role. First, social networks paved the way by spreading information about the destination country, and they provide continuing assistance. Social networks determined whether migration should occur and in which form, whether temporary, circular, or permanent. Secondly, social networks are available in the opportunity structure and play a significant role in all stages of business creation by providing information and other resources. Against this backdrop, the study describes the three fundamental characteristics exhibited by these social networks: structure, content, and function. Structure refers to the types of relationships often called an architectural aspect of network ties. Content is the transfer of material or non-material resources which is significant in the business creation process. It includes attitudes, opinions, more tangible experiences and collective memory held within networks. Function refers to the satisfaction of needs including emotional support and instrumental aid. Theoretical insights of this study are drawn from Giddens’ theory of structuration.