Undesirable Life Research Articles

Can personality explain genetic influences on life events?

Previous research in the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA) has found genetic influences on life events (R. Plomin, P. Lichtenstein, N.L. Pedersen, G.E. McClearn, & J.R. Nesselroade, 1990). The present study extends this finding by examining sex differences in genetic and environmental contributions to life events and by examining personality as a mediator of genetic influences on life events in SATSA. Analyses were based on 320 twin pairs, including identical and fraternal twins reared together and apart (mean age = 58.6 years). Controllable, desirable, and undesirable life events were revealed significant genetic variance for women. There was no significant genetic variance for either sex for uncontrollable events. Multivariate analyses of personality (as indexed by Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience) and life events suggest that all of the genetic variance on controllable, desirable, and undesirable life events for women is common to personality. Thus, in this sample of older adult women, genetic influences on life events appear to be entirely mediated by personality.

Threat expectancy mediates the relationship between attributional style for negative outcomes and anxiety

Recent research has failed to support the prediction that expectancy mediates the relationship between attributional style for negative outcomes and anxiety. The proposal in the present study was that the mediation hypothesis had not been supported because the measure of expectancy failed to evaluate the type of expectations directly involved in the etiology of anxiety. Beck has proposed that the expectations responsible for generating anxiety often reflect the degree of threat posed by an undesirable life event that may occur in the future. A sample of 104 students nearing the end of university were interviewed and scores obtained on measures of attributional style for positive and negative outcomes, threat expectancy regarding the prospect of future unemployment, and anxiety about future unemployment (“unemployment anxiety”). The findings supported the prediction that threat expectancy mediates the relationship between attributional style for negative outcomes and unemployment anxiety. There was also evidence consistent with the tripartite model of anxiety and depression that attributional style for positive outcomes is unrelated to the cognitive processes that generate anxiety. Directions for future research are proposed and limitations of the present study outlined.

Stress in the life course: a life history approach.

This article examines the relationship between stress and distress in the life course, emphasizing the time elapsed between the event and measurement of psychological distress. Stressors are conceptualized as either distal or proximal based on how recently they occurred. Distal stressors are further classified as status changes or undesirable life changes. Using a life history calendar approach, we examine stressors occurring over a 15-year-period. We explore whether distal stressors affect current depressive symptomatology above and beyond the effect of more recent stressors and how these stressors vary in frequency and affect over 3 empirically defined age groups. While some events decrease in frequency over age, others occur consistently across age groups. Most important, distal stressors significantly impact current depressive symptomatology, independent of proximal stressors. Types of distal stressors affecting depression vary over age, indicating that the stage of life at which a stressor occurs is a significant determinant of the stressor's effect on depression.

Incidence of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in a Community Sample of Young Adolescents

To investigate the incidence, transition probabilities, and risk factors for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and subclinical OCD in adolescents. A two-stage epidemiological study originally designed to investigate depression was conducted between 1987 and 1989 in the southeastern United States. For the screening, a self-report depressive symptom questionnaire was administered to a community sample of 3,283 adolescents. In the diagnostic stage, the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children was administered to 488 mother-child pairs. Baseline screening and diagnostic data from the first year the subject completed an interview and follow-up diagnostic data from subsequent years were used. The 1-year incidence rates of OCD and subclinical OCD were found to be 0.7% and 8.4%, respectively. Transition probabilities demonstrated a pattern of moving from more severe to less severe categories. Of those with baseline OCD, 17% had the diagnosis of OCD at follow-up; 62% moved to the referent group. Of those with baseline subclinical OCD, 1.5% had OCD at follow-up and 75% moved to the referent group. Black race (odds ratio [OR] = 23.38), age (OR = 4.02), desirable life events (OR = 0.78), undesirable life events (OR = 1.21), and socioeconomic status (OR not estimable) were significant predictors of incident OCD. Age (OR = 2.30), desirable life events (OR = 0.92), and undesirable life events (OR = 1.13) were significantly associated with incident subclinical OCD. An initial diagnosis of subclinical OCD was not significantly predictive of a diagnosis of OCD at 1-year follow-up. The overall morbidity remained higher at follow-up in the baseline OCD group than in the baseline subclinical OCD group. The baseline subclinical OCD group was more dysfunctional at follow-up than was the baseline referent group. Further research concerning differences in symptomatology and impairment between OCD and subclinical OCD is warranted.

GENDER AND THE PATHWAYS TO SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING

The purpose of this study was to explore gender differences in the pathways to life satisfaction and happiness. The analysis focused on the effects of undesirable events and the intervening influences of subjective assessments and social statuses. Using GSS(NORC) date from 1987–1990 (women=915 and men=700) findings suggest that men and women are more similar than different in their responses to undesirable life events. Modifying influences, however, appear to reject some gender-role effects. Women also experienced a persistent influence from distal events on life satisfaction, while men were more responsive to recent conditions in terms of global happiness. Overall, there was mixed support for gender differences found elsewhere in the life events literature.

Life stress and treatment course of recurrent depression: II. Postrecovery associations with attrition, symptom course, and recurrence over 3 years.

Life stress was studied in relation to postrecovery attrition, symptom course, and recurrence of depression over 3 years. Participants were 67 individuals with recurrent depression who had responded to treatment. Life stress was assessed for the prior 12 weeks at acute treatment entry (T1), initial recovery (T2), and after 17 weeks of sustained recovery (T3). Severe life events at T1 predicted greater attrition, a more favorable postrecovery symptom course, and a lower likelihood of recurrence over 3 years. Life stress at T2 was not predictive of outcomes. Finally, undesirable life events at T3 tended to predict a worse symptom course and a higher likelihood of recurrence, particularly for individuals on medication. The findings are discussed in terms of (a) different processes influenced by life stress over time and (b) limitations of existing longitudinal research for studying the effects of life stress over prolonged intervals.

Recent undesirable life events: their influence on subsequent psychopathology.

Life events appear to exert a range of effects on subsequent behaviour through their impact on affective-cognitive processes. Their effects on those physiological processes pertinent to psychopathology have yet to be investigated. Single events do not exert much risk for subsequent disorder. It is the pattern of adverse life experiences, of which recent life events is frequently a component, that determines the degree of risk and the mechanisms and processes that may lead to subsequent psychopathology. Recall of events that occurred in the recent past may be influenced independently by the age of the individual and a previous episode of psychiatric disorder. Longitudinal studies determining the impact of life events on subsequent behaviour will need to take these features into account. There remains no specificity between particular types of recent undesirable life events and anxious or depressive disorders. Future longitudinal research should employ modern methods of life event data collection and measurement. The goal of future longitudinal research should be to determine the relative contribution of undesirable and desirable recent life events in the presence and absence of other putative casual factors from different domains. This should necessarily include social (e.g. long-term difficulties), psychological (e.g, temperament (18) or self esteem) and physiological (e.g. hypercortisolaemia in adolescent major depression (14, 11) elements. It is only through this combination of longitudinal design, together with sensitive and concurrent multiple repeat measurements that a greater understanding of the mechanisms and processes that determine psychopathology over the course of development will occur.

Family and psychosocial predictors of obsessive compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents

A two-stage epidemiologic study conducted between 1986 and 1988 in the southeastern United States investigated family and psychosocial predictors of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and subclinical OCD in young adolescents. In the first stage, a life-event schedule and a family adaptability and cohesion scale were administered to a community sample of 3,283 adolescents. In stage two, the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia in School Age Children and the Children's Global Assessment Scale were administered to 488 mother-child pairs. In multivariable models family cohesion was the only significant correlate of OCD (odds ratio=0.95, 95% confidence interval 0.91–0.98). Gender, race, age, socioeconomic status, guardian status, adaptability, undesirable life events and desirable life events were not found to be significant predictors of OCD in models adjusting for cohesion. Note of the above variables were significantly associated with subclinical OCD. However, separate analyses of the 41 individual life events indicated seven specific events were significantly associated with OCD or subclinical OCD. These findings are at odds with the theory that overinvolvement of family members is a risk factor for OCD, though an association with overly rigid family structure cannot be eliminated based on these data. Further exploration of family characteristics is warranted.

A longitudinal study of life events and metabolic control among youths with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

In a study of school-age children with new-onset insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), life stress, metabolic control (glycosylated hemoglobin), and psychiatric and psychosocial variables were assessed repeatedly for up to 6 years. Life stress was defined as the number of undesirable life events and extent of life change necessitated by all life events. In univariate longitudinal analyses, total life change units were related to metabolic control, with a trend for number of undesirable events to be associated with metabolic control. In multivariate analyses, metabolic control was related to life change units, whether the glycosylated hemoglobin was in the 1st year of IDDM, IDDM duration, and the diagnosis of pervasive noncompliance with medical regimen. The relationship of life stress to metabolic control among youths with diabetes in significant but clinically modest and may be partially mediated by serious noncompliance with the medical regimen.

A longitudinal study of life events and metabolic control among youths with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

In a study of school-age children with new-onset insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), life stress, metabolic control (glycosylated hemoglobin), and psychiatric and psychosocial variables were assessed repeatedly for up to 6 years. Life stress was defined as the number of undesirable life events and extent of life change necessitated by all life events. In univariate longitudinal analyses, total life change units were related to metabolic control, with a trend for number of undesirable events to be associated with metabolic control. In multivariate analyses, metabolic control was related to life change units, whether the glycosylated hemoglobin was in the 1st year of IDDM, IDDM duration, and the diagnosis of pervasive noncompliance with medical regimen. The relationship of life stress to metabolic control among youths with diabetes in significant but clinically modest and may be partially mediated by serious noncompliance with the medical regimen.

Nonsuicidal physically self-damaging acts in adolescents

To determine the frequency and correlates of nonsuicidal physically self-damaging acts in 12–14 year olds, a two stage epidemiologic survey with a self-administered questionnaire (N=3283) followed by a psychiatric interview of a subsample of the adolescents and their parents (N=444) was used. Prevalence estimates of interview validated nonsuicidal physically self-damaging acts were 2.46% in males and 2.79% in females. Significant relationships were found between nonsuicidal physically self-damaging acts and suicidal ideation, major depression and undesirable life events. Data suggest that physically self-damaging acts occur at substantial rates during early adolescence. The strong correlation between nonsuicidal self-destructive acts and both suicidal ideation and major depression clarifies prior conflicting reports in the literature and suggests that a history of self-damaging acts should be taken into consideration when evaluating for possible depression and suicide risk.

Depression in 11–16‐year‐old Girls: The Role of Past Parental Psychopathology and Exposure to Recent Life Events

Interviews with parents of a non-referred sample of 11-16-year-old girls (n = 82) revealed that a significantly greater proportion of mothers with a lifetime history of any psychiatric disorder also reported one or more recent undesirable life events focused on the adolescent compared with mothers with no such history. Lifetime episodes of maternal depression and recent undesirable life events exerted significant additive effects on the likelihood of depression occurring in the previous 12 months in adolescent girls. Some families may be "life event prone" as a consequence of lifetime episodes of parental psychopathology.

Life events in Japanese employees

AbstractThe frequency and magnitude of life events and the relationships between these events and neurotic impairment were examined in 368 Japanese employees, using a life events questionnaire and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). While both desirable and undesirable life events with a high frequency were related to work only, both kinds of life events with a high strength were related to both family and work. No significant relationship was found between GHQ scores and the frequency or strength of desirable life events, but it was found between these scores and the frequency or strength of undesirable events.

Husband and Wife Differences in Response to Undesirable Life Events

In the present study of 451 married couples living in the rural midwest, gender differences were examined in reports of exposure and vulnerability to specific types of undesirable life events. Consistent with expectations derived from either a social structural or identity perspective, the results demonstrated that men are more likely than women to report exposure to and to be distressed by work and financial events. Women, on the other hand, are more strongly influenced by exposure to negative events within the family but not within their network of friends. Outcomes vary according to the type of emotional distress. Financial stress, for example, increases hostility among men more than among women, but wives are more likely than husbands to report somatic complaints in response to the same stressor. The findings demonstrate the need for future research that more directly investigates the intraindividual and social mechanisms which account for gender differences in a broad range of emotional and behavioral responses to varying types of significant life changes.

Recent stressful life events: Their long term effects

The long-term effects of undesirable life events are reviewed. Two forms of major event that are outside the child's control, divorce and war, are discussed together with the literature investigating the impact of undesirable life events on subsequent risk for psychopathology and maladjustment. The impact of any event cannot be easily predicted without a substantial knowledge of its antecedents, nature and consequences for the child's current environmental circumstances. The indications are that some children may be life event prone as a consequence of either not being protected from adverse circumstances in the family or peer group; or contributing, through their own behavioural style, to an increased likelihood of life event occurrence. The evidence supports the notion that, whatever the origins of life events, they increase the risk of subsequent psychopathology or poor adaptation to subsequent environmental demands such as school achievement. There are marked individual differences in outcome from exposure to similar severe events. The degree of risk for either subsequent psychopathology or poor adaptation is best determined by a knowledge of life events in association with other forms of adverse or ameliorating circumstances rather than by life events alone. Psychological and physiological responses to events, as well as measures of the environment, should be incorporated in future longitudinal research to assist in explaining individual differences in outcome to similar undesirable circumstances.

Social support, adversities and emotional distress in an Italian community sample

The association of social support with emotional distress in relation to adversities such as social problems, physical health and undesirable life events was assessed in an Italian community sample of 222 men and 224 women. Univariate comparisons and logistic regression analyses showed that neither the quality of a confiding core relationship nor social support from kin confidants was related to adversities. In women only, social support from friend confidants exerted a statistically significant independent main effect together with social problems and undesirable life events in producing a greater probability of emotional distress. The implications of these findings are discussed considering the socio-cultural characteristics of Italian families and individual coping strategies.

The Influence of Living Alone on Depression in Elderly Persons

The mental health effects of living alone on elderly persons are not well known. Using multiple regression models, the authors attempted to distinguish the influence of living alone on depressive symptoms from the influence of other highly relevant variables: social support, stressors, age, sex, and marital status. The data derive from a stratified community probability sample of persons 50 years of age and older. The authors find that elderly persons who live alone have higher levels of depressive symptomatology; and this relationship is independent of the influence of expressive support from friends, face-to-face interaction with friends, undesirable life events, disability, and financial strain. The depressive influence of living alone is greater on men than women. Undesirable health events have a stronger impact on those who live alone, particularly women. Marital status influences depression indirectly through its influence on living alone. Implications of these and other findings are discussed.

"Important" Life Events and Depression among Older Adults

The current article examines the role of psychosocial factors in the relationship of life events and depression among older adults by focusing on a single "most important" life event. Using data from a random community sample of older adults, the study finds that although health-related events do exacerbate the level of depression resulting from an undesirable life event, their exclusion from the analysis still results in a significant relationship between non-health-related events and depressive symptomatology. Controlling for both types of undesirable life events, the study further documents that psychological resources are more effective than social resources in predicting subsequent level of depression for those experiencing health-related events. For those experiencing non-health-related life events, social resources are most important in predicting subsequent symptomatology. Implications are discussed.

A Longitudinal Study of Suicidal Ideation in Young Adolescents

As part of a longitudinal study of depression and suicidal ideation in adolescents, a three-item suicide screen was administered to 1,073 students for 3 consecutive years starting at the beginning of the 7th or 8th grades. Each year over 70% of respondents reported no suicidal thoughts, and less than 5.5% attained high suicide ideation scores. Blacks and females had higher scores, respectively, than did whites and males. The individual students' suicide scores were less stable than the overall distributions with 1- and 2-year correlations reaching 0.35 and 0.28, respectively. Only one student received a high score all 3 years. The best predictors of a given year's suicide score was the previous years' depression scores. Gender, undesirable life events, family adaptability, and family cohesion were significant but less consistent predictors.

Life events, social problems and physical health status as predictors of emotional distress in men and women in a community setting

The main aim of this study was to construct logistic models of emotional distress (defined as a GHQ-30 score of 6 or greater) in a community sample of 226 men and 225 women. The independent variables included were: sociodemographic characteristics, physical health status, social problems and undesirable life events. Univariate comparisons showed that in both sexes undesirable life events and social problems were associated with emotional distress; in men the presence of physical symptoms and widowed, separated or divorced status also showed such an association. Separate logistic regression models for men and women confirmed the importance of undesirable life events and social problems as predictors for emotional distress. In women there was also a significant interaction effect between the two variables on emotional distress. Sociodemographic characteristics and physical health status did not exert a statistically significant effect in these models.