Underwater Slope Research Articles

Geotextile bag revetments for large rivers in Bangladesh

Since the late 1990s, riverbank revetments constructed of sand-filled geotextile bags (geotextile bags) have been developed in Bangladesh in response to the lack of traditional erosion-protection materials, particularly rock. After independence in 1971 and the related loss of access to quarries, rock was replaced by concrete cubes, but those are expensive and slow to manufacture. Geotextile bags on the other hand, first used as emergency measures during the second half of the 1990s, can be filled with local sand and therefore provide the opportunity to respond quickly to dynamic river changes. Geotextile bags also provide the potential for substantial cost reduction, due to the use of locally available resources. The use of the abundant local sand reduces transport distance and cost, while local labor is used for filling, transporting, and dumping of the 75–250 kg bags. Driven by the need for longer protection, the idea of using geotextile bags for permanent riverbank protection emerged in 2001. Eight years of experience have enabled systematic placement of geotextile bag protection along about 12 km of major riverbanks at a unit cost of around USD 2 M per km. By comparison, concrete-block revetments cost around USD 5 M per km. In addition, there are strong indications that geotextile bags perform better than concrete blocks as underwater protection, largely due to their inherent filter properties and better launching behavior when the toe of the protected underwater slope is under-scoured. This article reports the outcome of the last eight years of development work under the ADB-supported Jamuna-Meghna River Erosion Mitigation Project ( ADB, 2002), implemented by the Bangladesh Water Development Board. Besides substituting geotextile bags for concrete blocks as protective elements, the project involved development of a comprehensive planning system to improve the overall reliability and sustainability of riverbank protection works.

Simulation of surface waves generated by an underwater landslide moving over an uneven slope

This paper is focused on the study of the effect of an underwater slope unevenness on the wave mode characteristics caused by the motion of a landslide over this slope. Using the simplest model representation of a landslide in the form of a rigid body, the authors consider two model reliefs, taking to some extent into account the peculiarities of the Mediterranean coast of Israel. The simulation of wave processes is performed within the framework of the equations of the shallow water theory. The results of the comparison of wave modes are discussed, the dependences of the characteristics of these modes on geometric and physical parameters of the studied phenomena, such as the landslide bedding depth, its length and thickness, the geometry of the slope, and the friction force are analyzed.

Permafrost as a factor of the dynamics of the coastal zone of the Russian East Arctic Seas

Some regularities that are generally accepted in the theory about the development of sea coasts as applied to the East Arctic coast of Russia do not conform to reality. To find out the reasons for these contradictions, the connection between the coastal processes and the perennially frozen sediment of the underwater coastal slope in the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea was studied. The frozen state of the deposits of the coastal zone exerts a substantial influence on the coastal dynamics and determines several features of the thermoabrasion development. In particular, the subaqual permafrost does not allow the forming of a storm profile with dynamic balance. This fact causes the more effective action of the sea on the coastal cliffs and the more active recession of the frozen coasts as compared with their counterparts outside the cryolitozone.

Evolution history and trend of the modern Huanghe River Delta

The evolvement history of modern Huanghe River Delta tidal flat, coastline and underwater terrain were studied based on the analysis of remote sensing images and water depth data. Based on the analysis of seafloor terrain evolution on different historical stages, a formula simulating the erosion and deposition evolvement model of subaqueous Huanghe River Delta slope was proposed, and the evolvement trend of the subaqueous delta terrain was predicted. The result shows that the equilibrium transition zone is near the water depth of 12 m with seabed erosion in shallower water and accumulation in deeper water during the first 150 a after the river channel was deserted. In the meantime, the underwater slope became gentler and the coastal erosion rate became slow gradually. Then, the subaqueous delta slope changed to up concave from upper convex, and the shape of subaqueous delta disappeared. The coast type changed to silt-mud coast about 100–150 a after the river course was deserted. The erosion depth in the foot of the seawall is calculated based on the formula.

On contribution of horizontal and intra-layer convection to the formation of the Baltic Sea cold intermediate layer

Abstract. Seasonal cascades down the coastal slopes and intra-layer convection are considered as the two additional mechanisms contributing to the Baltic Sea cold intermediate layer (CIL) formation along with conventional seasonal vertical mixing. Field measurements are presented, reporting for the first time the possibility of denser water formation and cascading from the Baltic Sea underwater slopes, which take place under fall and winter cooling conditions and deliver waters into intermediate layer of salinity stratified deep-sea area. The presence in spring within the CIL of water with temperature below that of maximum density (Tmd) and that at the local surface in winter time allows tracing its formation: it is argued that the source of the coldest waters of the Baltic CIL is early spring (March–April) cascading, arising due to heating of water before reaching the Tmd. Fast increase of the open water heat content during further spring heating indicates that horizontal exchange rather than direct solar heating is responsible for that. When the surface is covered with water, heated above the Tmd, the conditions within the CIL become favorable for intralayer convection due to the presence of waters of Tmd in intermediate layer, which can explain its well-known features – the observed increase of its salinity and deepening with time.

THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SHORE LAND OF BUDAKSKY LIMAN (THE NORTHWEST NEAR-BLACK REGION)

The geological structure and material composition of nehrung, liman and underwater slope is given. Tracts of antsky horizon of the pra-Dniesterare allocated. In the structure is revealed prevalence of the medium sandy material. The proof tendency of recession of nehrung with a speed from 1 to 2 m/year is observed

First lake record of Holocene climate and vegetation change of the Northern Kuril Islands

Investigation of Pernatoe Lake sediments in the south of Paramushir Island has enabled us to obtain the first continuous pollen record of climate and vegetation changes in the north of the Kurile archi� pelago during the Holocene. Series of radiocarbon datings of between 10 000 ± 40 and 2180 ± 40 years ago are evidence that the beginning of sediments accumulation, found after borehole development, is related to the Early Holocene. Diatom analysis has shown several stages in the lake development: raised bog on the border of the Pleistocene and Holocene, lagoon formation resulting from the sea level rise over 9-6 ky, and freshwa� ter lake formation 6 ky and up to the present. Climate warming during the period attributed to the boreal and Atlantic periods of the Holocene is reflected by the dominance of Pinus pumila and Alnus serrulata assem� blages in vegetation cover. Wide dune fields were formed in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Pacific shores of Para� mushir Island 5-4 ky. Strengthening of atmogenic processes is related to cooling of the climate and drying of some areas of the underwater slope. DOI: 10.1134/S1028334X1002011X

Development of gas hydrates the modern technologies

The scheme of gas production from gas hydrates on underwater slopes is offered. The existing modern technologies which have to be used are listed. The mathematical apparatus for calculations describes a filtration of polyphase environments in the relative frame elastic porous medium with phase change.

Wave-induced shallow slides and their features on the subaqueous Yellow River delta

Slope instability processes occur widely on the underwater slopes of the Yellow River delta during storms. Roughly circular depressions on the upper delta front in water depths of 4 to 8 m have been detected by acoustic surveying and their processes were observed in the laboratory. This paper analyzes the properties of geomorphic and acoustic profiles of the upper delta front and compares the engineering geologic properties of samples from the disturbed and undisturbed areas. The results indicate that the weak superficial mass could oscillate with waves and the oscillation weakened the surrounding soil under the cyclic loading. The stratum was disturbed or even destroyed with depth, the area of the slide mass enlarged gradually, and finally a collapse depression formed.

Case studies on decapod crustaceans from the Philippines reveal deep, steep underwater slopes as prime habitats for ‘rare’ species

Relatively few studies have been done to define or assess rarity in the marine environment. Published studies have focused on shallow-water and intertidal habitats, and the available information appears to reflect the same pattern observed in terrestrial environments, i.e., that there are many rare species and few common species in any one given area. However, our studies of the abundance of new and/or supposedly rare taxa of decapod crustaceans from the deep, steep slopes of the island of Balicasag, in the central Philippines, have raised questions on how rarity should be defined in marine invertebrates. Examples of such supposedly rare species of crabs and lobsters (Crustacea: Decapoda) are presented here. That these animals come from deep, steep slopes, a relatively under-studied habitat, highlights the major gaps in current knowledge of marine biodiversity that are in part due to the inadequacy of both traditional and high technology sampling methodologies and the limited habitat types that the former can target. Low-technology, artisanal tangle nets have proved to be an optimal capture technique for deep-water decapod crustaceans on deep, steep slopes; many new taxa have been discovered and, in other cases, perceptions of rarity and endemicity have been corrected.

On gravitational instability of quaternary sediments on the western slope of the Derbent Basin (Caspian Sea)

1179 The problem of gravitational instability of Quater� nary (primarily, Holocene) sediments on underwater slopes of the Caspian Sea is of both scientific and quite apparent applied significance in connection with the assessment of geological risks during development of oil and gas deposits [1–8]. The analysis of slope stabil� ity is also of primary importance for designing differ� ent engineering constructions such as offshore drilling platforms, underwater pipelines, communication cables, and others. The slopes of the Derbent Basin represent one of the most dangerous areas of the Caspian Sea with respect to the development of gravitational–slumping processes (Fig. 1). In our previous works on the Qua� ternary geology of the central Caspian Sea [4, 6–8], we noted exogenic–gravitational rootless folds in sed� iments of the eastern [7, 8] and northern [4, 6] slopes,

High-resolution palynological analysis in Lake Sapanca as a tool to detect recent earthquakes on the North Anatolian Fault

High-resolution palynological analysis of a 38-cm long core collected from Lake Sapanca, northwest Turkey, reveals large earthquakes that occurred during the second half of the 20th century along the North Anatolian Fault Zone. Four events have disturbed the lacustrine sedimentary sequence. Three of the four events are historical earthquakes in 1999 in Izmit, 1967 in Mudurnu and 1957 in Abant. These events are recorded in the core by turbiditic deposits and reworked sediment and by low overall palynomorph concentrations but high values of thick-exined pollen, fern spores and fungal spores. Palynomorphs in the event beds have been grouped based on their associations in modern moss, river and lake samples. The inferred mechanisms of transport and sources for the palynomorphs are: 1- lake sediment displaced by slump, 2- collapsed shoreline sediment owing to seiche, waves and sudden lake level changes, 3- subsidence of deltas and 4- river-transported soil and sediment from upland areas. The 1999 Izmit earthquake is only weakly recorded by palynomorphs, probably due to recent engineering control on the rivers. The 1967 Mudurnu earthquake had the strongest effect on the lake, introducing successive packages of sediment to the centre of the lake from underwater slopes, the lakeshore and rivers.

Depth profile of Aplysina ssp.: morphological, histological and biochemical aspects and their role in species distinction

In the Mediterranean Sea, two species of the genus Aplysina Nardo, 1834 (Demospongiae, Verongida, Aplysinidae) co-occur, both described by Schmidt in 1862. The first one was named Aplysina aerophoba (formerly Verongia aerophoba) due to the change of its bright yellow pigment uranidine to dark blue when exposed to air. The second one was named Aplysina cavernicola (formerly Verongia cavernicola) due to its preferred shaded habitats, e.g., caves. The definition for species differentiation was mainly based on ecological and morphological characteristics. However, as both species display a high degree of phenotypic variability, distinction solely based on morphological attributes is not suitable in all cases. In addition, differences can be found in the species-specific microbial composition of symbionts and metabolite pattern. For the first time, we report an investigation on both Aplysina species along one single transect on an underwater slope in the Adriatic Sea, and the successful species distinction using solely the different biochemical composition of metabolites.

Depth-Related Alkaloid Variation in Mediterranean Aplysina Sponges

Total amounts and patterns of bromoisoxazoline alkaloids of Aplysina sponges from Croatia (Mediterranean Sea) were analyzed along an underwater slope ranging from 1.8 to 38.5 m. Total amounts of alkaloids varied from sample to sample and showed no correlation with depth. In contrast, striking differences of alkaloid patterns were found between sponges from shallow sites (1.8-11.8 m) and those collected from deeper sites (11.8-38.5 m). Sponges from shallow depths consistently exhibited alkaloid patterns typical for Aplysina aerophoba with aerophobin-2 (2) and isofistularin-3 (3) as main constituents. Sponges from deeper sites (below 11.8 m) resembled Aplysina cavernicola with aerothionin (4) and aplysinamisin-1 (1) as major compounds. The typical A. cavernicola pigment 3,4-dihydroxyquinoline-2-carboxylic acid (6), however, could not be detected in A. aerophoba sponges but was replaced by the A. aerophoba pigment uranidine (5) which appeared to be present in all sponge samples analyzed. During transplantation experiments sponges from sites below 30 m featuring the A. cavernicola chemotype of bromoisoxazoline alkaloids were translocated to shallower habitats (10 m). The alkaloid patterns in transplanted sponges were found to be stable over a period of 12 months and unaffected by this change in depth. In a further experiment, clones of Aplysina sponges from shallow depths of 5-6 m resembling the A. aerophoba chemotype were either kept in situ under natural light conditions or artificially shaded by excluding photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Neither 4 nor 1 were detected in artificially shaded sponges over an observation period of 12 months. In summary, two chemically distinct types of Aplysina sponges were discovered in this study that proved to be remarkably stable with regard to the bromoisoxazoline patterns and unaffected either by changing the light conditions or depth. It is not clear presently whether the Aplysina sponges collected from depths < 11.8 m represent a new chemotype of A. cavernicola lacking the pigment 6 or whether we have incidentally come across a so far undescribed species of the genus Aplysina.

Sedimentary record from Lake Hovsgol, NW Mongolia: Results from the HDP-04 and HDP-06 drill cores

The Hovsgol Drilling Project retrieved Pleistocene sediment section with the basal age of ca. 1 Ma from the Hovsgol rift basin, NW Mongolia. Detailed lithologic data on drill cores is presented and compared with analogous sediment facies in the radiocarbon-dated records of the last glacial–interglacial transition. Drill cores from two sites, presently in 239 m and 235 m water depth, represent somewhat different depositional settings. The shorter HDP-06 drill core (26 m) at the base of the gentler SE slope of the rift basin contains lithologic evidence for several recent lake lowstands on the order of −200 m. The longer HDP-04 drill core (81 m) some 8 km away at the base of the steep NW underwater slope is composed of finer sediments and contains at least 10 characteristic transitions from calcareous to carbonate-free (diatomaceous) layers. These lithologic transitions are interpreted here as signals of repeated Pleistocene lake transgressions in the Hovsgol basin. Transgressions appear to have been associated with lower sedimentation rates and with the deposition of thin turbidite beds at the drill site. Comparison of drill core lithology with the available seismic data shows reasonable agreement in terms of the number of lowstand events and the general trends of changing lake level. HDP-04 drill core retrieved shallow-water facies containing sand and carbonate oolites deposited at the time of the most dramatic mid-Pleistocene regression of the lake. At ca. 24 m core depth, this interval corresponds to a major basinwide angular unconformity apparent in the seismic pattern. Lake Hovsgol, a smaller sister rift lake of the grand Lake Baikal, has a confined local catchment, which makes it very sensitive to regional variations in the effective moisture. Consisting primarily of calcareous mud, the sedimentary record of Lake Hovsgol provides a unique regional sedimentary archive. Future multi-proxy studies of the Hovsgol sedimentary records will allow constraint of the mid-late Pleistocene history of the hydrologic budget in the Baikal region of continental interior Asia.

Tsunami deposits of the Shikotan earthquake of 1994

This paper describes the results of the grain-size and mineralogical studies of the deposits of the tsunami of 1994 on Shikotan, Tanfil’ev, and Kunashir islands. The studies were carried out within the portions of the coast with different configurations, geomorphologic structures, lithodynamical environments, and character of the tsunami manifestation. The composition of the tsunami deposits is shown to be controlled mainly by erosion-accumulative processes during the tsunami events and is in many respects inherited from the matter sources. The tsunami deposits contain marine diatom species, whose richest assemblages were found within the areas where the material from the underwater coastal slope was redeposited. The data concerning the deposits of earlier historical tsunamis encountered in the same cross sections are discussed too. Their examination points to a similar development of the erosional-accumulative processes during tsunami events with the same intensity and an entrainment of the matter from the same sources.

Probabilistic geotechnical analyses for offshore facilities

Society requires increasingly that the hazard and risk associated with engineered constructions be quantified. The current paper presents geotechnical hazard assessment in the context of a risk framework. Concepts of uncertainties, reliability, safety and risk are briefly reviewed. The use of the approach is exemplified for offshore facilities, including piled foundations, jack-up structures, gravity foundations and underwater slopes. The applications demonstrate that probabilistic analyses complement the conventional deterministic safety factor and deformation-based analyses, and contribute to achieving a safe and optimum design. The probabilistic approach adds value to the results with a modest additional effort. The conclusions emphasize the usefulness of a risk assessment, the importance of engineering judgement in the assessment and the need for involving multi-disciplinary competences to achieve reliable estimates of hazard and risk. The profession can only gain by implementing probabilistic-based thinking and risk-based approaches more systematically than before.

Sedimentation particularities during the tsunami of December 26, 2004, in northern Indonesia: Simelue Island and the Medan coast of Sumatra Island

Sediments deposited during the tsunami of December 26, 2004, in coastal areas that differ in their structure and orientation relative to the tsunami front are studied with defining of the factors controlling particular features of the sedimentation under different wave intensities. The lithology of tsunami-related deposits and data on various fossils (diatoms, foraminifers, and mollusks) are analyzed. It is established that the tsunami resulted in the accumulation of sediments of various composition, which is explained by the features of the transformation of the wave as well as by the structure of the underwater coastal slope, the flooded zone, and the provenance. Variably oriented coseismic motions are one of the factors influencing the sedimentation patterns. The paleotsunami deposits discovered are compared with their recent counterparts.

Gravitational stability computed through the limit equilibrium method revisited

The stability of slopes is a problem of great relevance for geologists and geophysicists as well as for geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineers. The classical approaches are the method of limit equilibrium, and the finite-element and finite-difference analyses of deformations. Since the former is computationally simpler and less expensive, it is more widely used in common practice, though it has some weakness points from a theoretical point of view. Essential in this technique is the definition and computation of the factor of safety F for the slope, a parameter indicating that the slope is stable, if it is larger than unity. The method is known to have not a unique solution, but it is common belief that the safety factors associated with all the solutions fulfilling the basic equilibrium equations do not differ more than 5–10 per cent from each other, which is a range of variability considered acceptable by most. Here the non-uniqueness of the solution is discussed, and it is shown that the magnitude range of F can be so large as to undermine the meaning of the safety factor criterion. The classical limit equilibrium methods based on the assumptions of cutting the sliding body into a set of vertical slices are revised, and the new concept of minimum lithostatic deviation (MLD) is introduced as a means to mitigate the effect of non-uniqueness. The paper suggests that the proper solution to the problem is the one that satisfies the equilibrium equations and minimizes the lithostatic deviation that is defined here as the ratio of the average intensity of the interslice forces and the total weight of the body. Accordingly, the factor of safety F associated with such a solution is suggested to be the value appropriate to evaluate the stability of the slope. Remarkably, the MLD principle gives us the means to introduce a completely revolutionary approach to study stability. We derive expressions that account for gravitational loading, and for additional effects such as seismic loading and the overpressure due to the overlying water mass in case of underwater slopes.

Liquefaction flow of submarine slopes under partially undrained conditions: an effective stress approach

The stability of submarine slopes is commonly assessed based on undrained soil response. Liquefaction flow may occur when pore-pressure rise in soil elements under constant shear stress causes a reduction in effective stresses. Recent experimental studies have shown that a small net flow of water into an element results in additional pore-pressure generation and further reduces its strength. As a result, soil elements can liquefy due to expansive volumetric strains that cannot be predicted by undrained analysis. Submarine deposits of the Fraser River delta are known to contain high concentrations of methane gas. Tidal variations can cause unequal pore-pressure generation with depth and time in these soils. Such changes reduce the effective stresses during low tides and may induce liquefaction flow of slopes due to partial drainage conditions. An effective stress approach based on an elastic–plastic stress–strain relationship is presented to model liquefaction flow of sand. A fully coupled analysis is carried out to evaluate the behaviour of both saturated and gassy deposits of loose Fraser River sand and Ottawa sand. Triggering of liquefaction resulting in retrogressive flow slides is predicted for an unsaturated underwater slope similar to those observed near Sand Heads at the front of the Fraser delta.Key words: sand liquefaction, Fraser River delta, submarine slopes, flow slide, gassy sand, partial drainage.