Underwater Sites Research Articles

The Flintlock Site (8JA1763): An Unusual Underwater Deposit in the Apalachicola River, Florida

In the fall of 2001, staff of the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research were led by river divers to an underwater site in the Apalachicola River containing a large concentration of prehistoric and historic artifacts lying on the riverbed. Subsequent inspection of the submerged river bank and scoured limestone river channel revealed a myriad of objects, which included iron fasteners, metal tools and implements, broken glass bottles, stone projectile points, scattered bricks and stone blocks, and other materials. Discovery of two large fragments of a wooden watercraft, a bayonet, a copper arrowhead, and flintlock gun barrels initially prompted researchers to hypothesize that the site might represent the remains of a U.S. Army boat that was attacked in 1817 by Seminole Indians while en route upriver. The episode, which caused the deaths of more than 30 soldiers and several women who were aboard the boat, led to the First Seminole War and the U.S. Army invasion of Florida. To investigate this hypothesis, a systematic survey of the riverbed was undertaken in the spring of 2002 to record underwater features and recover additional diagnostic artifacts. These activities employed side-scan sonar as well as diver visual investigations. This paper presents a case study of the value and broader significance of aggregate data where interpretation was underpinned by artefactual, historical and environmental analysis.

Ancient Sounding-Weights and Navigation along the Mediterranean Coast of Israel

Underwater archaeological investigations in Israel have recovered scores of sounding-weights of varying shapes, weights and ages. Sixty-three examples kept in Israel Antiquities Authority collections are described in detail, discussed, and placed in a tentative typology of sounding-weight types from the Israeli coast. Finds from shipwreck assemblages enabled dating of some types. Integration of the topography and hydrography of the Israeli coast with site-formation processes provides a theoretical explanation for the high number of weights recovered from Israeli underwater sites. © 2009 The Authors

Trade Ceramics from the Gotō Islands (Japan), Circa Sixteenth to Early Seventeenth Century: The Yamami Underwater Site (Ojika) and Related Issues

Underwater archaeology is still a new development in Japan, and to date only a few sites have experienced significant investigation. One of them is the recently surveyed Yamami underwater site on the Gotō Islands, which yielded sixteenth-to seventeenth-century trade ceramics from Thailand and Vietnam, as well as from the Jingdezhen kilns in China. After an introduction to the subject of ceramic trade and underwater archaeology in East Asia, the article reviews the ceramic pieces of the Yamami site in detail and links them to comparable finds from various sites in western Japan, such as from the main ports of Hakata and Nagasaki, along with examples from different international museum collections and wreck finds from the South China Sea. After also consulting historical sources, such as the Kai-hentai, the study develops a fresh interpretative approach toward the Yamami find, and—in a broader perspective—suggests strong bonds between the late medieval and early modern Japanese markets and the lively networks of the South China Sea.

Pile Dwellings, Changing Lake Conditions and Sediment Deposition: Preliminary soil micromorphology study of cultural deposits from underwater sites at Lake Luokesas, Molėtai Region, Lithuania

A pilot study of targeted soil micromorphology samples from Lake Luokesas in Lithuania suggests that at least one of the lake's prehistoric pile dwelling settlements was initially constructed over open water in lake marl, indicating a raised structure. Following this, a sequence of peat layers found between, within and over later cultural deposits suggests at least localised drying out, lowering of water levels, and/or raising of the local lakebed through cultural deposits and sand accumulation. It is suggested that these local events may have been an important factor in initial on-site peat formation, which could be possible without envisaging an overall drop in lake water levels. However, ongoing work on the sites may show larger-scale alterations, and it is clear that lake levels did rise at the end of the cultural and peat sequence.

Rigorous Reasoning, Reflexive Research and the Space for ‘Alternative Archaeologies’. Questions for Maritime Archaeological Heritage Management.

As England's heritage policy is shaped around us, it is vital that there is debate, and some consensus, among the maritime archaeological community on core management questions. These include approaches to degrading underwater sites, how to deal with shipwrecks threatened by development, and crucially, who should be driving these decisions. This paper argues that there is a need for self-critical analysis of the meaning of ‘heritage’. It problematises the notion of professional archaeologists as ‘guardians of the archaeological record’ and the conception of ‘heritage’ formed without reference to ideas of the past being a product of the present and, therefore, the potential for the production of multiple pasts

Bornholm i ældre stenalder – Status over kulturel udvikling og kontakter

Bornholm i ældre stenalder – Status over kulturel udvikling og kontakter

THE NEMO ACOUSTIC TEST FACILITY

The NEMO (NEutrino Mediterranean Observatory) Collaboration is constructing, 25 km E from Catania (Sicily) at 2000 m depth, an underwater test site to perform long-term tests of prototypes and new technologies for astrophysical HE neutrino telescopes. In this framework the collaboration deployed an electro-optical cable equipped with several e.o. terminations. An experimental apparatus for the measurement of underwater acoustic background was also installed and connected to shore on 22 Jan 2005, allowing continuous on-line monitoring of deep-sea noise in the range 30 Hz - 40 kHz. Underwater noise spectra were produced and classification of transient signals is under way.

A diffusion chamber for assessing efficacy of natural anti-fouling defenses in marine organisms

A slow-release diffusion chamber is here described for use in assessing the effectiveness of potentially bioactive compounds as anti-fouling agents. Its settlement surface is a porous 15 mm thick slab of Portites lobata skeleton, through which an aqueous extract of a given marine organism is permitted to diffuse. The chamber is placed at an underwater site for 30 days at a time, and settlement of sessile, benthic organisms, particularly algae, is permitted to occur. Comparative settlement levels were compared between chambers containing an extract and a seawater control. An extract of Sinularia flexibilis (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea) was assessed using such chambers and found to be an effective natural anti-fouling agent or defense mechanism against Ectocarpus sp. and pennate diatoms, reducing their cover by ∼ 50% when compared to experimental conditions using seawater as a control. Intra-chamber variability in extract concentration was found to be minimal. No significant differences were found in extract concentrations between replicate chambers through time. The chamber is a highly cost-effective and efficient tool by which such assessments can be made and easily replicated. It is recommended that coral which has recently died be collected and used as a source of substratum for this purpose.

Photo Mosaics In Shallow Water Environments:Challenges And Results

Photo mosaics of underwater sites are useful for interpreting sites and increasing the level of detail for areas too large for conventional photography. While this tool has been used for years at deep-water sites using camera platforms, such traditional devices are difficult to use in areas that are too shallow or too rough to maintain a consistent distance to the site. In addition, some sites, notably large shipwrecks, cannot be photographed at a well-maintained distance given the time constraints of many projects. Finding alternative methods to collect data and create photo mosaics is necessary.

Underwater MASW to evaluate stiffness of water-bottom sediments

Stiffness measurements are often necessary for geotechnical characterization of an underwater site. Seismically, these measurements can be made through the dispersion analysis of the Rayleigh-type surface waves. Successful terrestrial application of this method has been reported by many investigators using spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) and more recently using multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW). The MASW method was originally developed as a land survey method to investigate the near-surface materials for their elastic properties: for example, the shear-wave velocity (VS), by recording and analyzing Rayleigh-type surface waves using a vertical (impulsive) seismic source and receivers. The acquired data are first analyzed for dispersion characteristics and, from these the shear-wave velocity is estimated using an inversion technique.

Global Offshore Hazardous Materials Sites GIS

Underwater dumpsites or hazardous material sites lie in every ocean on the earth. A geographic information system (GIS) project documents the locations and associated data of Global Offshore Hazardous Materials Sites (GOHMS) potentially posing threats to human health, safety, navigation, commercial fishing, and the environment. Nearly 350 sites are currently in the project. This paper discusses some of the history of hazardous materials disposal and loss at sea, primarily off the United States coast between 1945 and 1970 when few guidelines existed to geographically document an underwater site. Although not publicly distributed at present, the GOHMS GIS project is intended to add value to existing historical information by providing site investigators and responders easy access to waste stream locations and other spatial data through NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration and the National Marine Sanctuaries Program.

On-line electrochemical monitoring of (TNT) 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene in natural waters

An electrochemical flow system for on-line monitoring of trace 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in marine environments, based on a square-wave voltammetric operation at a carbon-fiber based detector, is described. The system offers selective measurements of sub-ppm concentrations of TNT in untreated seawater matrix (with a detection limit of 25 ppb). It responds rapidly to sudden changes in the TNT concentration with no observable carry-over. About 600 runs can be made every hour with high reproducibility (e.g. R.S.D.=2.3%, n=40) and stability. A computerized baseline subtraction offers effective compensation of the oxygen background contribution. Good sensitivity and stability is illustrated also for on-line monitoring of TNT in untreated river water samples. The system lends itself to full automation and to deployment onto various mobile platforms. By meeting the high-sensitivity, selectivity, stability, portability and low-cost demands, such as voltammetric flow detection holds great promise for field-based screening operations aimed at characterizing and remediating unexploded ordnance (UXO) contaminated underwater sites.

The Adriatic Within The Mediterranean: Some CharacteristicShipwrecks From The Roman Period

Many underwater archaeological sites along the eastern Adriatic coast, as well as those on land, bear witness to the importance of the Adriatic in intensive maritime trade in the Mediterranean during the period of Roman dominion. Several hundred underwater sites registered in the area to the present confm the connections between the eastern Adriatic, the Adriatic as a whole, and the rest of the Mediterranean. While finds dating to the time of the Roman Republic point to a dynamic local exchange of goods and indicate established links between the two Adriatic coasts, the finds from the Imperial periods suggest imports from remote provinces of the Roman Empire. It should, however, be kept in mind that all our conclusions come primarily from amphorae as the basic form of packaging for the maritime transport of goods. Even though the Adriatic incorrectly remains absent from nautical charts of ancient sailing routes in the Mediterranean, the results of investigation and research testify to the existence of numerous sailing routes and a thriving commerce and economy during the entire Roman period.

Fishing-gear sinkers recovered from an underwater wreckage site, off the Carmel coast, Israel

A classification scheme for the large number of fishing-gear sinkers recovered along the Israeli coast is devised. Sinkers, or weights, of lead and stone are classified by material, shape and method of manufacture.

An Examination of Deterioration Products Found on Tin Ingots Excavated from the 14thCentury B.C., Late Bronze Age Shipwreck, The Ulu Burun, Near Kas, Turkey

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to investigate the deterioration of tin ingots recovered from a late 14th century B.C. (Late Bronze Age) shipwreck off Ulu Burun (Kas) Turkey. As so little elemental tin has been excavated from underwater sites and preserved to date, the Ulu Burun ingots offer a unique opportunity to study the degradation products of ancient tin artifacts from a natural marine environment. The current investigation had three major objectives: to identify corrosion products; to confirm or refute the presence of ‘tin pest’, which has been asserted as one of the major reasons for the disintegration of the ingots and a topic of much controversy in the conservation and museum communities; and, finally, to contribute to the overall understanding of marine tin. The following instrumental techniques were used to analyze ingot samples: x-ray diffraction, atomic absorption, inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy. The results of the analysis have identified corrosion products that are characteristic of the type of products anticipated on tin objects from a marine environment. The presence of the controversial tin pest disease was confirmed in two of the six samples tested. Sample preparation appears to be a potential factor in the determination of tin pest using XRD.

Pollen, phytoliths, and other microscopic plant remains in underwater archaeology

Materials and methods for the recovery and analysis of microscopic plant remains in underwater archaeology. This article explores formation of underwater sites, preservation and potential contamination of botanical remains, sampling techniques, benefits of sampling and searching for microscopic remains including pollen, phytoliths, cystoliths, starch grains, epidermal tissue, and cellulose fibre, and conservation and archiving of archaeobotanical samples. Materials such as ship's caulking, surrounding sediment matrices, bilge sediments, and organic remains found inside various types of cargo containers can contain microscopic plant remains that become botanical fingerprints used to identify cargoes, ship's foods, onshore vegetation, location of a ship's home port, and plants used to make rope, basketry, and matting.

The HMS Swift shipwreck: The development of underwater heritage protection in Argentina

The aim of this article is to evaluate, with a critical perspective, the legal framework for heritage protection in Argentina, viewing it within an international context and focusing on the HMS Swift shipwreck – sunk in Puerto Deseado (Santa Cruz province) in 1770 – as a case study. Moreover, some initial proposals for a management plan are presented as a first step in thinking about the challenges of preserving underwater sites in Argentinian Patagonia.Through this analysis some interesting points are outlined, including the reasons that make the Swift shipwreck a leading case in Argentina. It is the first interdisciplinary underwater archaeology project in the country comprising archaeologists who are also divers; it is supported by national authorities; and it is the first project of its kind to give underwater archaeologists experience in dealing with archaeological research and preservation in an environment of multiple conflicting interests.The international relevance of the Swift case relies on the nature of underwater cultural heritage as an international resource. The project's history is located in an international setting, derived from ihternational trade and communication, in which many ships and their contents have been lost far from their origin or destination. At a national level the Swift is a wreck with significant historical and cultural value. It is in a unique state of preservation and its location near to the shore makes it highly accessible. Locally,HMS Swift will be relevant when Puerto Deseado's community starts to recognise it as a significant part of their own heritage and local people become involved in the preservation of the wreck.

The application of the Submetrix ISIS 100 Swath Bathymetry system to the management of underwater sites

Over the last decade analysis of the HMS Pomone wreck scattered below the Needles has aimed to correlate artefact positions with their terrain and aid research into the distribution process of the wreck-site. However, physical limitations faced by divers on the site have restricted progress. The search for a solution to the difficulties of archaeological surveying was resolved by the Submetrix ISIS 100 system when a bathymetric survey of the wreck-site was performed in a single day. It has provided a contoured terrain model that can aid further investigations and help plans for the future management of the site.

Out of the Privy and into the Lab: Field Conservation on Waterlogged Sites

Field conservation efforts on archaeological sites in the United States have still not been mandated by many local, state, and federal agencies. For terrestrial sites, this may not always be necessary, but for underwater sites conservators are included much more frequently. But what about archaeological sites in between, such as waterlogged wells and privies? And what happens when the archaeologists suddenly run into a feature yielding large quantities of waterlogged materials in a good state of preservation? On a recent excavation in Alexandria, Virginia, artifacts were recovered from a Civil War period privy which yielded organics, inorganics, and synthetic materials. Due to funding, time constraints, and lack of knowledge, a conservator was not included in the original scope of work for the project. This type of situation occurs far too frequently. However, by working with a conservator early on in the initial stages of an excavation, priorities and guidelines can be established for dealing with waterlogged finds.

The application of the Submetrix ISIS 100 swath bathymetry system to the management of underwater sites

The application of the Submetrix ISIS 100 swath bathymetry system to the management of underwater sites