Underwater Archaeology Research Articles

The Role and Impact of Ancient Egyptian Red Sea Trade Routes in Facilitating Cross-Cultural Exchange

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the ancient Egyptian Red Sea trade routes and their critical role in facilitating cross-cultural exchanges between Egypt and its trading partners. Employing an innovative combination of remote sensing data, underwater archaeology, and analysis of economic and cultural exchanges, the research offers new insights into the complexities of ancient trade networks. The study challenges existing historical narratives by revealing the sophisticated nature of ancient commerce and its global implications, highlighting the interconnectedness and dynamism of ancient civilizations. By meticulously mapping these trade routes and examining the goods, technologies, and cultural practices exchanged, the paper sheds light on the mechanisms of ancient trade and its impact on economic prosperity and cultural richness across regions. The findings not only advance our understanding of ancient trade networks but also underscore the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in uncovering the nuanced dynamics of global interactions in the ancient world. The paper calls for a reevaluation of ancient global interactions, proposing new avenues for future research and enriching the academic discourse on ancient economies, trade networks, and cultural interactions.

Predictive Modelling in Underwater Archaeology. A Case Based on Mesolithic Coastal Settlements in Denmark

Abstract Research on underwater archaeological sites has been adversely affected by various socioeconomic (specialized equipment, lack of know-how, legal framework, etc.) and environmental (weather conditions, site formation processes, etc.) challenges. Interdisciplinary approaches, especially technology integration, can help introduce a methodology to evaluate these factors and mitigate limitations to enhance the information retrieved and assist the interpretation process. One such approach may be predictive modelling while developing methodologies based on predictive models can be assets in research. The work presented in this article is based on this approach and assesses the use of predictive models based on six case studies. It is an effort to evaluate whether targeting sub-areas when excavating on limited time and budget can help clarify the interpretation of the information collected from these areas.

Underwater image denoising based on curved wave filtering and two-dimensional variational mode decomposition

Underwater image denoising technology is of great significance in underwater operation. Underwater operations (such as offshore oil drilling, undersea tunnels, pipeline construction, underwater archaeology, biological research, and lifesaving) require stable and clear underwater images to aid analysis. Due to the scattering and absorption of light by water bodies, obtaining high-quality underwater images is a challenging task. Underwater images are prone to low contrast, low resolution and edge distortion. Therefore, it is difficult to accurately separate the effective signal when removing the underwater image noise, which leads to the image contrast reduction. Also the edge contour is not clear, and the detail loss is serious. Therefore, we propose a novel underwater image denoising method based on curved wave filter and two-dimensional variational mode decomposition. Firstly, the noisy image is decomposed by two-dimensional variational mode decomposition, and a series of modal components with different center frequencies are obtained. The effective modal components are selected by correlation coefficient and structural similarity. And the effective modal components are processed by the curve-wave filter. Finally, the filtered modal components are reconstructed to remove the noise in the image. The experimental results show that, compared with other state-of-the-art methods, the proposed method has clearer denoising results, less mean square error, and better denoising effect.

Active Pose - Autonomous Hole-Filling Techniques for 3D Surface Reconstruction in Underwater Exploration

Underwater exploration and related research face significant challenges, including incomplete data collections and the high cost of operations. An underwater robot's capacity to independently identify, target, and address gaps in 3D surface data, termed as ‘holes’, during a mission has the potential to significantly lower the expenses associated with research endeavors, such as those in underwater archaeology or subsea monitoring, and to improve sea surface mapping for autonomous robots. This study introduces a novel approach that combines the boundary-edge of a triangle mesh with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to actively gather incomplete data. We propose two distinct techniques for active hole-filling, as well as a method to determine the most appropriate strategy. We introduce the flying-over and following-rail approaches to automatically determine new sensor positions for collecting additional point cloud data, which are then used to reconstruct the surface and fill the gaps. Experiments were conducted using both simulated underwater images with ORB-SLAM3 (Campos et al. (2021)) and real-world Multibeam Echo Sounder data.

The Evolution of the Concept of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Europe: A Review of International Law, Policy, and Practice

Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is a diverse and valuable resource that includes shipwrecks, sunken cities, and other submerged archaeological sites. It is an important part of human history and culture and can significantly benefit society. However, various factors often neglect and threaten UCH, including climate change, pollution, and human activities. Several factors, including technological advances, the development of international law, and the growing awareness of the importance of cultural heritage, have influenced the evolution of the concept of UCH. In the early days of underwater archaeology, the focus was on recovering artifacts and treasures from shipwrecks. However, over time, there has been a shift towards a more holistic approach to the management of UCH, which emphasizes the importance of in situ preservation and the involvement of local communities. This review provides a chronological analysis of the evolution of the concept of UCH over the past 70 years and examines the main international conventions and charters developed to protect UCH. The review also discusses the relationship between UCH and marine protected areas (MPAs), the marine environment, and the coastal landscape.

6 Shipwreck archaeology in the past 10 years

This paper reviews the trends, topics, and research directions in shipwreck archaeology over the past decade. As archaeology increasingly embraces advances in technological methods that can aid our research, the so-called ‘digital turn’, it behoves maritime archaeologists, and archaeologists more broadly, to consider how collaborative utilization of specialized fields including biomolecular archaeology, geophysics, and contemporary philosophy have spurred on a rapid modernization of our field in recent times. Archaeological research, both terrestrial and underwater, has long been a collaborative discipline. However, we argue here that difficulties in working underwater have encouraged maritime and underwater archaeologists to embrace technological developments at a rapid pace. An explicit theoretical framework and the incorporation of contemporary philosophy in the field of underwater archaeology was, until recently, largely lacking in the discipline’s discourse. The incorporation and advancement of adjacent disciplines within the field of underwater archaeology mark the most relevant changes within the shifting tides of shipwreck research.

The Dawn of Everything: A View From the Water

The historiography of maritime archaeology is one of margins and peripheries. Linked to the development of underwater archaeology, efforts to advance theoretical frameworks within the discipline have been slow at best. There remains a widespread assumption—even among archaeologists—that maritime archaeology deals mostly with shipwrecks and underwater sites, and as such, has little to contribute to broader debates in archaeology. Archaeology remains a terrestrial affair that rarely engages with water worlds, and when it does, it retains its feet firmly on ground. So what do a land archaeologist and an economist have to offer to the world of maritime archaeology? In spite of its terrestrial focus, The Dawn of Everything speaks to a number of recurring issues in maritime archaeology, where scholars worry about the relationship between terrestrial states and maritime worlds. Such concerns are central to the very constitution of maritime societies: are they hierarchical or heterarchical; are they the same as, or different from the wider societies in which they sit? In the maritime discourse, environmental determinism takes a greater role than Graeber and Wengrow would admit in their book. Graeber and Wengrow’s interest in fluid societies that have the capacity to construct and deconstruct themselves seasonally find their best laboratory in maritime cultural worlds. Both the ancient past and the ethnographic present provide us with an opportunity to understand the contingency of power and decision-making, all within the framework of a seasonal environmental landscape. If nothing else, The Dawn of Everything encourages us to look at each society on its own terms, so let us start by getting our feet wet.

Shell Midden Archaeology: Current Trends and Future Directions

Since the 19th century, the study of shell middens has played an important role in archaeological research. Shell midden and broader coastal archaeology have transformed our understanding of human relationships with aquatic habitats, demonstrating the importance of marine environments to human evolution and ecology, the colonization of islands and establishment of maritime trade networks, changing social and political dynamics, and a variety of other issues. During the past two decades, shell midden research has greatly increased, marking an exciting time for new discoveries and heightened collaboration with Indigenous communities. Several key research trends in shell midden archaeology during the past 10–15 years include research on site distribution and temporality, underwater archaeology, historical ecology, terraforming, landscape legacies, and community collaboration. These research trends demonstrate the ways in which shell midden archaeologists are shaping our understanding of the human past and environmental change around the world.

When Time Is of the Essence—Recording an Underwater Excavation at 110 m

Underwater archaeological excavations present unique challenges, particularly when conducted at significant depths where divers face limited time on the archaeological site. Traditional methods of recording excavation progress, such as manual documentation and drawings, are too time-consuming when the time on the site totals no more than 12 min. To address these limitations, this paper introduces an innovative approach for daily recording and observation of underwater archaeological excavations using 3D photogrammetric models and point of view (PoV) cameras developed specifically for the excavation of a shipwreck situated at a depth of 110 m. The proposed system leverages advancements in photogrammetry and 3D modelling techniques to capture and analyse detailed visual data of the excavation site on a daily basis. Three-dimensional photogrammetric models offer a comprehensive and easily accessible representation of the excavation site, enabling the team to record and analyse excavation levels and features in a highly precise and detailed manner. By comparing the 3D models captured on consecutive days, researchers can precisely measure changes in the excavation area, identify new artifacts or structures, and record the progress of the excavation. The PoV cameras contribute to the planning of daily tasks required on the site. Overall, this paper showcases innovative methods for underwater archaeological excavations at significant depths, employing 3D photogrammetric models for daily recording as well as PoV cameras for observation. The proposed system represents a substantial advancement in the field of underwater archaeology, offering a more accurate, efficient, and reliable approach to documenting and analysing excavation progress, whilst also producing results that can be subsequently adapted and applied to other deep water archaeological sites.

Global enhancement network underwater archaeology scene parsing method

AbstractUnderwater archaeology is of great significance for historical and cultural transmission and preservation of underwater heritage, but it is also a challenging task. Underwater heritage is located in an environment with high sediment content, objects are mostly buried, and the water is turbid, resulting in some of the features of objects missing or blurred, making it difficult to accurately identify and understand the semantics of various objects in the scene. To tackle these issues, this paper proposes a global enhancement network (GENet) underwater scene parsing method. We introduce adaptive dilated convolution by adding an extra regression layer, which can automatically deduce adaptive dilated coefficients according to the different scene objects. In addition, considering the easy confusion in the process of fuzzy feature classification, an enhancement classification network is proposed to increase the difference between various types of probabilities by reducing the loss function. We verified the validity of the proposed model by conducting numerous experiments on the Underwater Shipwreck Scenes (USS) dataset. We achieve state-of-the-art performance compared to the current state-of-the-art algorithm under three different conditions: conventional, relic semi-buried, and turbidified water quality. The experimental results show that the proposed algorithm performs best in different situations. To verify the generalizability of the proposed algorithm, we conducted comparative experiments on the current publicly available Cityscapes, ADE20K, and the underwater dataset SUIM. The experimental results show that this paper achieves good performance on the public dataset, indicating that the proposed algorithm is generalizable.

Data-driven prediction for curved pipe jacking performance during underwater excavation of ancient shipwreck using an attention-based graph convolutional network approach

Thrust is a crucial parameter to ensure the quality of underwater curved pipe jacking construction. A prediction framework based on hybrid deep learning is proposed to realize real-time prediction of thrust. The method contains graph convolutional neural network (GCN), gated recurrent unit (GRU), and self-attention (SA) mechanism. To enhance the interpretability of the method, Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP), and causal discovery models are introduced within the framework. Taking the salvage project of the “Yangtze Estuary No. 2″ shipwreck as a case study, the prediction performance of the model is verified. The results show that the proposed model achieves excellent performance in thrust prediction for underwater curved pipe jacking, with an average MAE of 11.07 kN, RMSE of 13.96 kN, and R2 value of 0.934. The SHAP analysis reveals that angle, buried depth, and stratum changes exert significant influences on thrust. Furthermore, the spatial correlation and temporal correlation among features are revealed. Compared to other models, the proposed model exhibits superior prediction accuracy and is capable of handling various time step sizes, thereby providing valuable decision support for curved pipe jacking thrust prediction.

Conservation of Underwater Archeology Paper Objects: From the Method Development to Practical Restoration

Conservation of Underwater Archeology Paper Objects: From the Method Development to Practical Restoration

Quality Enhancement for Underwater Images using Various Image Processing Techniques: A Survey

Underwater images are essential to identify the activity of underwater objects. It played a vital role to explore and utilizing aquatic resources. The underwater images have features such as low contrast, different noises, and object imbalance due to lack of light intensity. CNN-based in-deep learning approaches have improved underwater low-resolution photos during the last decade. Nevertheless, still, those techniques have some problems, such as high MSE, PSNT and high SSIM error rate. They solve the problem using different experimental analyses; various methods are studied that effectively treat different underwater image distorted scenes and improve contrast and color deviation compared to other algorithms. In terms of the color richness of the resulting images and the execution time, there are still deficiencies with the latest algorithm. In future work, the structure of our algorithm will be further adjusted to shorten the execution time, and optimization of the color compensation method under different color deviations will also be the focus of future research. With the wide application of underwater vision in different scientific research fields, underwater image enhancement can play an increasingly significant role in the process of image processing in underwater research and underwater archaeology. Most of the target images of the current algorithms are shallow water images. When the artificial light source is added to deep water images, the raw images will face more diverse noises, and image enhancement will face more challenges. As a result, this study investigates the numerous existing systems used for quality enhancement of underwater mages using various image processing techniques. We find various gaps and challenges of current systems and build the enhancement of this research for future improvement. Aa a result of this overview is to define the future problem statement to enhance this research and overcome the challenges faced by previous researchers. On other hand also improve the accuracy in terms of reducing MSE and enhancing PSNR etc.

The Underwater Archaeological Chart of the Azores (UACA): Project Results for Terceira, Pico and Faial Islands (2004–09)

The Underwater Archaeological Chart of the Azores (UACA): Project Results for Terceira, Pico and Faial Islands (2004–09)

High-precision 3D imaging of underwater coaxial scanning photon counting Lidar based on spatiotemporal correlation

A coaxial scanning photon counting Lidar is developed to achieve three-dimensional (3D) imaging of underwater targets. A spatiotemporal correlation-based method is proposed to achieve high-precision detection, which involves preprocessing using matched filtering with the instrument response function. A single-point repeatability measurement of a planar target and a 3D image of a resolution plate are performed using the Lidar system and the signal reconstruction algorithm. The experimental results demonstrate that the ranging accuracy is better than 1.0 cm. Compared with the maximum likelihood estimation method, the proposed method exhibits higher ranging accuracy when the target distance does not change steeply. Additionally, the 3D imaging results of the target model consisting of a car and a suitcase can clearly distinguish features such as the rearview mirror, headlight, handle, and lock. The system has potential applications in underwater target identification, ocean engineering construction, underwater archaeology, and other fields requiring high-precision 3D imaging.

Surface-Related Multiples Elimination for Waterborne GPR Data

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a well-respected, effective, and efficient geophysical technique. However, for underwater engineering detection and underwater archaeology, the measured B-scan profiles typically contain surface-related multiple waves, which can reduce the signal to noise ratio and interfere with the interpretation of results. SRME is a feedback iteration method based on wave equation, which is frequently utilized in marine seismic explorations but very rarely in GPR underwater engineering detection. To fill this gap, we applied SRME to suppress multiples that appear in GPR underwater images. When we compared the effectiveness of the underwater horizontal layered model and the underwater undulating interface model, we found a high match rate between the predicted and the real-world multiples. In addition, the addition of the Gaussian random noise level with a 4% maximum amplitude to the B-scan profile of the horizontal stratified model yielded satisfactory multiple suppression results. Finally, we applied this method to the B-scan GPR section of actual underwater archaeological images to achieve multiple suppression, which can more effectively weaken and inhibit the surface-related multiples. Both numerical simulations and actual field data show that the SRME method is highly suitable for interpreting waterborne GPR data, and more accurate interpretation can be obtained from the GPR profile after multiples suppression.

Corrosion of glaze in the marine environment: study on the green-glazed pottery from the Southern Song “Nanhai I” shipwreck (1127–1279 A.D.)

The “Nanhai I” shipwreck is an important discovery in the underwater archaeology of China, and many ceramics have been unearthed. These ceramics are important material artifacts of China’s “Maritime Silk Road” and have considerable significance for the study of foreign trade in the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279 A.D.). However, these ceramics have been buried in a marine environment for approximately 800 years and have all been corroded to varying degrees, with green-glazed pottery being the most severely corroded. In this study, the chemical compositions of five samples of green-glazed pottery and the corrosion morphology and mechanism of a representative sample were analyzed by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Results: The green glaze is a low-temperature silica-aluminum oxide-lead oxide (SiO2-Al2O3-PbO) glaze with copper ions (Cu2+) as the main colorant. The corrosion morphology is characterized by alternating silicon (Si)- and lead (Pb)-rich layers, a sharp reaction interface between the Si-rich layer and the pristine glaze, and a relatively high porosity of the Si-rich gel layer, which is formed by the accumulation of spherical hydrated silica colloidal particles. These features suggest that the glaze was corroded through an interface-coupled dissolution–precipitation mechanism and that the properties of the gel pores controlled the reaction kinetics. Fluctuations in the solution properties at the reaction interface produced the complex morphology of the gel layer, whereas changes in the dryness and humidity of the environment are not essential factors. The samples have been corroding in the marine environment for nearly a thousand years, and explorations of the corrosion morphology and mechanism could provide reference information on the corrosion of various ancient ceramics and glasses and a basis for scientific conservation of these objects.

Чернолаковая керамика со штампованным орнаментом из подводных исследований у мыса Ак-Бурун

Unbroken and fragmented black-glazed vessels were one of the most informative categories of pottery found during underwater excavations by the expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the area of the port of Panticapaeum near Ak-Burun cape (about 480 in total). Items decorated with stamped and incised ornaments, brought to the Bosporus from Attica, Asia Minor and Corinth, accounted for a significant percentage. They date back from the last quarter of the 5th — the second half of the 2nd century BC. The set of shapes and combinations of decorative elements are, generally, quite standard, somewhat inferior in diversity to the pottery finds from the urban layers of Panticapaeum. New impressions that have not been seen before can be identified, as well as identical stamps, which made it possible to cautiously assume the possibility of manufacturing several pairs of vessels in the same workshop. Fragment of a Stemless cup of the first quarter of the 4th century BC with a unique decoration on the inner surface is of particular interest: Silenic masks surrounded by stylized pine cones. There are no analogies to such images, but stylistically, the closest examples come from Southern Italy.

Temporary solidification and extraction of marine archaeological wood underwater at a depth of seven meters: A further contribution

In-situ solidifying extraction of large-volume and severely damaged underwater fragile artifacts is still one of the major issues in underwater archaeology. Recent evidence suggests that veratraldehyde can be used to temporarily solidify artifacts underwater; however, it is still challenging to use it in actual archaeological sites. This prospective study was conducted in a seven-meter-deep pool wherein veratraldehyde was used to solidify and extract waterlogged ship wood from the “Nanhai I” shipwreck. The entire underwater extraction process was recorded using a camera. The change in the wood surface color before and after extraction was relatively minor. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that the wood microstructure was not significantly damaged, while nuclear magnetic resonance analysis showed no residues of veratraldehyde and its oxidation products. Overall, the proposed method utilizes a set of scientific techniques for successful in-situ solidifying extraction of underwater fragile wooden artifacts.

Discovery and Excavation of Artifacts from the Bidong Shipwreck, Malaysia

ABSTRACTUnderwater archaeological research has been developed less aggressively in Malaysia than in other ASEAN partner countries, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines. In past decades, financial constraints have limited the development of underwater archaeology, and the field has been dominated by commercial salvage experts. Malaysia has not addressed many issues or fundamental problems related to future development. The discovery of the Bidong Shipwreck in 2013 has raised hopes that underwater archaeological research in Malaysia will develop more dynamically. The successful excavation of this shipwreck site proves that local experts can conduct scientific excavations. This article presents and discusses the discovery and process of excavating artifacts from the Bidong Shipwreck. The project outcomes provide a guide for stakeholders and agencies involved in future underwater excavations in Malaysian waters.