Underwater Cultural Heritage Research Articles

Resisting Internationalism?

Abstract This article reviews historical legislation relating to the management of shipwrecks in Indonesia, examining issues relating to terminology, division of authority, and implementation. It focuses on the evolution of Indonesia’s commercial salvage legislation, from its introduction in 1989 to its abrupt cessation in 2010, when a moratorium was introduced. While the moratorium was interpreted as a sign that Indonesia was moving closer to internationally accepted principles regarding the management of underwater cultural heritage, the introduction of a new law unrelated to maritime heritage has instead disturbed this anticipated trajectory. Designed to stimulate job opportunities, Law No. 11/2020 on Job Creation has, perversely, raised the prospect that the moratorium will be repealed. As this article demonstrates, the changing conceptualization of the value of shipwrecks and their cargoes remains a live issue in Indonesia, reflecting unresolved tensions about its identity as a maritime nation.

Of time and tide: the complex impacts of climate change on coastal and underwater cultural heritage

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has documented wide-ranging changes to the world's coasts and oceans, with significant further change predicted. Impacts on coastal and underwater heritage sites, however, remain relatively poorly understood. The authors draw on 30 years of research into coastal and underwater archaeological sites to highlight some of the interrelated processes of deterioration and damage. Emphasising the need for closer collaboration between, on one hand, archaeologists and cultural resource managers and, on the other, climate and marine scientists, this article also discusses research from other disciplines that informs understanding of the complexity of the interaction of natural and anthropogenic processes and their impacts on cultural heritage.

Arkeologi Maritim: Kapal Karam Di Semenanjung Malaysia

This article discusses archaeological research of shipwrecks as a form of underwater cultural heritage with special reference to ancient shipwrecks and their cargoes discovered in Peninsular Malaysia from 1907 to 2019. The discussion will include the formation process of underwater cultural heritage, especially the discoveries of shipwreck sites and cargoes which have connections as well as trade, cultural and political relationships with early maritime kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The significance of shipwreck sites in the development of archaeological shipwrecks in Peninsular Malaysia will also be discussed in the contexts of research and education of our national history. This is important for the early development of maritime archaeology’s potential, particularly on shipwrecks from the 1990s to the early first decade of the 21st century.

A step closer to the convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001: China’s latest efforts in regulation

As the lex specialis on Underwater Culture Heritage (UCH) protection in China, the Regulation on Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics of PRC 1989 (Regulation 1989) was revised again in 2022 (Revision 2022). Comparatively, the Revision 2022 makes obvious amendments to its original version and is closer to the international convention in this field, regarding the essence and contents. This paper outlines the revision history of Regulation 1989 and the highlights of Revision 2022. By refining the rules directing underwater activities, encouraging public participation in UCH protection, restricting commercial salvage and treasure hunting and proposing the regime of UCH protection zones, the Revision 2022 bridges Chinese law and the international convention to a certain extent.

Conventions

The question of whether cultural heritage should be a public or a private matter has been debated before, and the decisions taken on this issue vary according to the State. But one thing is clear: the private sector can play a vital role in protecting underwater cultural heritage and in making it more accessible, even when it is publicly owned.

Mapping and Recording of Ancient Shipwrecks by Using Marine Remote Sensing Techniques: Case Studies From Turkish Coasts

Within the context of the “Shipwreck Inventory Project of Turkey (SHIPT),” numerous acoustic remote sensing and photogrammetric surveys have been carried out along the coast of Turkey with the aim of detecting, mapping and documenting underwater cultural heritage. During the surveys, many ancient shipwreck sites have been discovered thanks to advanced technologies such as high-resolution side-scan sonar (SSS), sub-bottom profiler (SBP), and remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Once acoustic anomalies have been located, shipwreck sites have been verified by ROV and documented by 3D photogrammetric survey. Analysis of the collected data confirmed that the survey design and data acquisition parameters are the most important criteria for obtaining best quality image. Performing high-resolution remote sensing and photogrammetric survey for shipwrecks using optimal data collection techniques provides rapid results, decreasing time and budget and increasing the quantity of underwater cultural heritage that can be recorded. This paper discusses proper survey stages for the rapid, effective, high quality detection and recording of the shipwrecks using advanced technology. Acoustic images of shipwrecks comparing cargo, period, and form are also introduced in this paper, for the first time, which provide data on interpreting anomalies accurately for further exploration and monitoring surveys.

The WAS Project—Waterscape Archaeology in Sicily at Isola delle Femmine (PA, Italy): Submerged and Emerged Heritage

The WAS—Waterscape Archaeology in Sicily—project is dedicated to underwater cultural heritage mapping, knowledge and awareness of the cultural heritage, dissemination, and analysis of the submerged environment concerning the coast. The prototype investigation site presented here is Isola delle Femmine (PA, Italy). This paper highlights the archaeological discovery with a description of the main finds, across a multidisciplinary approach, carried out with low-cost technology, increasing sustainable diving, and underlining the relationship between submerged and open-air historical evidence. Our studies address the realization of new underwater archaeological itineraries connected to local history. This text provides a historical-archaeological introduction to understanding the context of the site and, with some geological notes, illustrates the phases of the research with a presentation of the main artifacts, with a focus on the methodology and the techniques of the surveys and the usefulness of underwater photogrammetry and 3D modeling with a particular focus on the tourism application in the diving centers. Our work has allowed for the creation of two new underwater archaeological itineraries of Sicily. The innovative aspects of our project are linked to a new holistic approach in the context of the scientific synergy between multiple disciplines.

Should China access to the convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage? — A SWOT analysis

In recent years, with China’s marine strength having enhanced, the discussion on whether to access to the ‘Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’ has become increasingly prominent. A growing number of experts and scholars believe that the current domestic laws cannot meet the needs of development; thus accession to the ‘Convention’ may after all be accepted as a solution. Given the current development in China, it cannot be generalized whether it is appropriate to access to the ‘Convention’. Indeed, based on the analysis of comparison between status quo of domestic legislation and international marine development, there is no necessity for China to eagerly access to the ‘Convention’, in that for many issues, the domestic laws in China have many differences with international law, and still need further development and improvement.

Bursting the bubble: Reflecting on 50 years of maritime archaeological research in Queensland

Over the last 50 years, significant maritime archaeological research, including the excavation of shipwrecks and underwater cultural heritage projects (mainly site inspections and monitoring activities) occurred in Queensland. There is no doubt that there are exceptional historic ship and aircraft sites along the Queensland coastline. Queensland has been the home of an active Maritime Archaeology Department at the Queensland Museum, one of the most successful active avocational groups (the Maritime Archaeology Association of Queensland), and a decade-long university program at James Cook University. However, it seems that after the large-scale excavations of HMS “Pandora” (sunk in 1791), maritime archaeological research, educational outreach, public interest, and eventually, professional positions, dwindled. This paper reviews the past 50 years of shipwreck research, highlighting where and when approaches failed before discussing the future and what lies ahead for maritime archaeological research in Queensland.

Reassessment of Malaysia's Tourism Policy on Bidong Island

Tourism industry is an important component in the service industry and plays a key role towards the economic sustainability. However unprecedented, and continuous developments in the tourism industry have exposed to many threats such as physical destruction of fauna and flora, ocean acidification, coral mining, and invasion of species. Looking into these considerations, this study aimed to discuss the reassessment of Malaysia’s tourism policy focusing on UNESCO heritage sites and underwater cultural heritage in Bidong Island, Terengganu. The uniqueness of Bidong Island creates an important value as one of Malaysia’s significant assets which need to be conserved and preserved of its heritage values and amazing resources. Apart from being rich with natural resources, this incredible island has rare and amazing biodiversity, exclusively for a wealth of unique marine life. Nevertheless, Bidong Island still lags in development as one of the tourist destinations as this island has the potential to generate the economy of the state of Terengganu. Therefore, this study aims (i) to re-evaluate Malaysia's tourism policy toward Bidong Island; (ii) to analyze the framework based on the development and conservation of UNESCO heritage and underwater cultural heritage, and (iii) lastly, to examine the 360-degree application to strengthen the tourism sector in Bidong Island. This study employed a qualitative design, relying on field observation and interviews with the selected informants that are directly involved in the tourism development sector. The findings of the study highlighted the need for comprehensive action in structuring Malaysian tourism policy in Bidong Island during the unprecedented disruptions by COVID-19. These include planning strategies to encourage the sustainability recovery, fostering digital transition, and shifting to a greener tourism system, and directing for the future. Based on these claims, this study proposes action plans that need to be emphasized by the government to develop Bidong Island as part of UNESCO heritage sites and underwater cultural heritage by determining the stakeholder roles, planning executions, and identifying and evaluating cultural assets. The study also proposes a 360-degree application in the tourism industry as aligned with Malaysia’s tourism policy from 2020 to 2030. Guided by these findings, this study able to provide insights in booming the tourism industry activities at Bidong Island as well as offers helpful suggestions to government officials, scholars and tourism firms to reinvest and revitalize Bidong Island as a resilient and sustainable tourism sector.

Quo Vadis Regulation on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Balancing Conservation and Economic Interest

The management of underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia is still experiencing many obstacles, one of which is the imbalance between conservation and economic interest in managing underwater cultural heritage. The results indicate that these problems stem from the legal gap that exists in the Indonesian legal system. Existing Laws and Regulations have not been adequate to respond to the needs for conservation and proper economic utilization of underwater cultural heritage. The non-existent provision in regards to in situ and ex situ conservation, as well as the appraisal and selling methods, has led to further legal uncertainty. By using normative legal research methods, this research paper aims to analyze the urgency of managing valuable cargo objects from sunken ships classified as underwater cultural heritage objects and formulate a new concept of underwater cultural heritage management which contain seven steps that will balance both conservation and economic.

Underwater cultural heritage is integral to marine ecosystems

Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) supports marine biodiversity and influences connectivity. UCH structure, colonizing organisms, and anthropogenic stressors interact to shape sites over time, but these interactions are poorly understood. Here, we express the urgent need for biology-archeology collaborations to address interdisciplinary questions. We also codify the emerging field of Maritime Heritage Ecology.

The Australian Management of Protected Underwater Cultural Heritage Artifacts in Public and Private Custody

AbstractThis article briefly outlines underwater cultural heritage artifact management in Australia from an unregulated collecting environment in the 1940s–1960s to the increasingly regulated environment of the present. In 1993, in conjunction with new legislation, an amnesty was declared in order to inventory artifacts collected from now-protected historic shipwrecks that were in private hands. The amnesty period concluded with approximately 20,000 artifacts notified at a time when information was being stored in a range of formats and to different standards. Today, the Australian Government manages the possession, custody, and control of approximately 500,000 underwater cultural heritage artifacts, most of which are in collecting institutions, with one-tenth in public custody. This article highlights the contemporary legislative, policy, and administrative framework for the management of underwater cultural heritage artifacts in Australia, particularly those that remain in the possession of private individuals and are subject to trade.

Chinese legislation on protection of underwater cultural heritage in marine spatial planning and its implementation

ABSTRACT Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) means all traces of human existence having a cultural or historical character which have been lain underwater for a certain period of time. Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a major planning tool employed by States for the purpose of coordinating various sea uses and achieving sustainable development of the sea and coastal areas. Among various sea uses, the protection of underwater cultural heritage has often been overlooked. Fortunately, people have already realized the importance of underwater cultural heritage. How to integrate the UCH protection into MSP is a common challenge for all States around the globe. In China, the integration of UCH protection into MSP is also considered a problem awaiting immediate solution. The present study will review the relevant legislation of China and its implementation. Existing problems and possible solutions will be discussed.

Underwater Cultural Heritage: Regime and Jurisdiction Challenges

The present paper focuses on international and national aspects of a legal regime of underwater cultural heritage and highlights peculiarities of States’ jurisdiction towards discovered underwater archaeological values. Underwater cultural heritage legal regime correlates with regimes of maritime zones where objects in question are located or found. On these grounds, it is possible to distinguish the UCH regimes in (i) sovereign and jurisdictional areas and (ii) in the High Seas and the Area. The UCH regime in the first case is trifold, including rights of coastal States, other concern States, and flag states of government ships and aircraft. While on the High Seas or in the Area, such regime is subject to bilateral or multilateral arrangements. The effectiveness of enforcing said regime rules also depend upon possible territorial claims and contested jurisdiction. The issue becomes critical for maritime ‘gray zones’ or conventional armed conflicts at sea.

How the Guidelines for the Implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 contribute to better protection of cultural property

AbstractThis article analyzes the contribution of the Guidelines for the Implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (the Guidelines) to better protection of cultural property in peacetime and in times of armed conflict. The first part of the article introduces the Guidelines within the context of the implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1999 Second Protocol) and the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, and provides examples of UNESCO's other standard-setting instruments such as the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural or Natural Heritage, the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, as well as bodies providing for guidelines for these instruments. The second part underscores the most important advances of the Guidelines in the implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol. The third part focuses on the contribution of the Guidelines as subsequent practice in the application of the 1999 Second Protocol establishing the agreement of the parties regarding its interpretation in the framework of Article 31(3)(b) of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Finally, the fourth part concludes by highlighting the main advantages of the Guidelines in providing better protection for cultural property.

RETRACTED: Applying geoarchaeological principles to marine archaeology: A reappraisal of the “first marine” and “in situ” lithic scatters in the Dampier Archipelago, NW Australia

AbstractThe absence of known prehistoric underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites on the Australian inner shelf stands in stark contrast to the thousands of sites revealed elsewhere in the world. Two recent claims—Dortch et al. (D2019) and Benjamin et al. (B2020)—put forward the first in situ (i.e., primary context) UCH sites in the shallow waters of the Dampier Archipelago, North West Australia, each arguing that the stone artefact scatters are at least 7000 years old and are now submerged because of postglacial sea‐level rise. We present new hydrodynamic modelling and data on coastal erosion and bathymetry, and reassess each site's sedimentary setting and archaeological site‐formation history. D2019 and B2020 clearly present lithic cultural artefacts, but the arguments for their sites being of primary context and reflecting early Holocene land surfaces are mistaken. Rather, these sites occur in the intertidal zone, and many or all artefacts are likely to have been reworked. Sites of secondary context, if treated appropriately, can inform our understanding of site‐formation process and change, and may support more powerful contributions to submerged archaeology than attempts to seek the first or the oldest.

The Cultural Heritage Framework Programme: Ensuring a Place for Cultural Heritage's Contribution to the UN Decade of Ocean Science

Abstract Maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) is concerned with the relationship between people and the marine and coastal environment over time. Rooted in the past, MUCH is a resource that can help us understand and appreciate our current situation. But MUCH is also a medium through which we address the future to develop resilience and motivate adaptation. MUCH is both a source of inspiration and of evidence: to study and understand it requires and develops interdisciplinary skills across the social sciences, STEM, and SHAPE subjects.The UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021‐2030, in promoting a common framework for supporting stakeholders in studying the world's oceans, presents a vital opportunity to improve the integration of MUCH within the marine sciences. The Ocean Decade Heritage Network's Decade Action, the Cultural Heritage Framework Programme, focuses on ensuring that MUCH specialists—archaeologists and cultural heritage managers—can engage constructively with the marine sciences under the auspices of the Ocean Decade, and make the best of the opportunity that the Ocean Decade presents in addressing present and future challenges facing the world's oceans.

The Bioerosion of Submerged Archeological Artifacts in the Mediterranean Sea: An Overview

Bioerosion is the destruction of hard substrates resulting from biological activity, and plays a relevant role in the ecological interactions and coastal dynamics processes. Several organisms have evolved structures and behaviors allowing them to perforate biotic and abiotic surfaces, transforming hard surfaces into particles, and contributing significantly to sediment production in the coastal and marine environment. Due to the large geographical diffusion of marine borers, bioerosion is relevant in many scientific and applied fields of interest. Most bioerosion studies have hitherto been conducted in tropical areas, where borers are a critical component of coral reef destruction. Comparatively, little information is available for the bioerosion of submerged archeological heritage. This review focuses on the bioerosion of archeological calcareous artifacts in the Mediterranean Sea, summarizing studies concerning the colonization of statues, shipwrecks, cargo, and the remains of submerged cities. The paper includes the first comprehensive listing of the archeological sites in the Mediterranean Sea where bioerosion has been assessed. The diversity of boring organisms affecting marine archeological remains and their boring patterns, the various types of bored materials, and the severity of the damage caused to heritage artifacts are also included. Both microborers (algae, fungi, and cyanobacteria) and macroborers (sponges, bivalves, polychaetes, sipunculids, and echinoids) are considered, and their roles in the structuring of endolithic assemblages are also covered. The experimental techniques currently employed to analyze bioerosion traces, helping to identify particular species and ichnospecies and their ecological dynamics, are also considered. Finally, a discussion of the current strategies proposed for thein situprotection and conservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage is provided.

Amendment process and comments of the provisions of underwater cultural heritage in the Draft Exploitation Regulations in the Area

Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) shall be preserved for the benefit of humanity. International Seabed Authority (ISA), an authoritative organization for the management of the Area and its resources, acting its rights in the resources of the Area on behalf of all mankind, is trying to promote exploitation regulations to regulate exploitation activities in the Area. There are provisions in exploitation regulations that provide for UCH protection found in the Area by the Contractor. On the basis of collecting the provisions on the protection of UCH of different versions of the Draft Regulations on Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Area and corresponding stakeholder submissions, this paper analyzes the modification of the UCH provisions and reasons. The paper concludes by suggesting that the provisions on UCH protection in the Draft Exploitation Regulations mainly need to be refined in four aspects: the scope of protected objects, the state of origin, compensation for the Contractor and more parameters about the procedure and “reasonable radius”.