Undernourished Mothers Research Articles

Patterns of retarded fetal growth

The measurement of weight, length and head circumference at birth was used to document the size and shape of infants born at term in a population where mothers are relatively short and underweight. Different patterns of intrauterine growth are proposed to explain the variation in the infant's appearance at birth. Most of the small-for-gestational-age infants were proportionately stunted. This pattern of fetal growth is probably characteristic of infants born to undernourished mothers in economically developing communities, and reflects prolonged intrauterine growth retardation.

Effect of calcium supplementation to undernourished mothers during pregnancy on the bone density of the neonates

Eighty seven pregnant women belonging to poor socioeconomic groups of population were investigated to find out the effect of calcium supplementation during pregnancy on the bone density of the mother as well as of the neonate. Supplements of 300 and 600 mg of elemental calcium administered daily from the 20th week of gestation onward until term, brought about a significant increase in the bone density of the neonates bom of such mothers compared to that of the neonates born to unsupplemented mothers. Although no significant difference was observed between the initial and final values for bone densities among the mothers, there was a tendency for an increase in the bone density of the mothers who received 600 mg of calcium supplements. Individual variation of different neonatal bones in their response to maternal calcium supplements was observed. Bone density of the neonate was not related to the birth weight, crown-heel, or crown-rump lengths.

Breast feeding practice of the hillside people of Thailand and its effect on the growth of their offspring

Based on measurement of weight, height, head circumference, arm muscle and fat area, it seems that hilltribe infants in the first year of life can achieve a maximum growth potential similar to the general international standard of reference when they are on a total breast feeding regime. Theoretical calculations suggest that the undernourished hilltribe mothers may have a high capacity to lactate, especially in the first-year postpartum. Thus the practice of total breast feeding should be preserved and encouraged in every possible way. Also the infant should receive dietary supplements as he approaches the end of the first year.

ESCHERICHIA COLI O ANTIBODY CONTENT IN MILK FROM HEALTHY SWEDISH MOTHERS AND MOTHERS FROM A VERY LOW SOCIO‐ECONOMIC GROUP OF A DEVELOPING COUNTRY

The antibody content of milk from healthy Swedish mothers was compared with that of milk from mothers of a very low socio-economic group in a developing country. Antibodies of various immunoglobulin classes against E. coli O antigens were determined with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The milk antibodies which mainly belonged to the secretory IgA class appeared in similar concentrations in milk from the two groups using E. coli antigens of Swedish as well as Pakistani origin. The secretory IgA antibodies could be demonstrated in the stool of the breast-fed infants of the undernourished mothers. Also the concentration of serum IgG and IgA antibodies to E. coli O antigens were similar in the Pakistani and Swedish mothers. The serum IgM antibody levels of the Pakistani mothers were higher, however, presumably due to a higher frequency of infections. It was noted that the milk production decreased considerably upon the hospitalization of the healthy and well-to-do Swedish mothers. The small milk volumes of the undernourished Pakistani mothers suggest that the lactation failure observed was mainly due to inadequate milk flow and not to decreased milk quality. The results indicate the necessity of studying the nutritional, psychological and social factors responsible for low milk yield and add yet another reason to stimulate prolonged breastfeeding.

Maternal behavior in the undernourished rat ( Rattus norvegicus)

Undernutrition was produced in rat pups and their mothers by allowing the mothers access to only 40 percent of the food that they normally would eat. Undernourished or well nourished rat pups were fostered on undernourished or well nourished mothers when the pups were 8 days old. Retrieving times and maternal behaviors were recorded for a period of 2 hr. Neither the well nourished nor undernourished mothers treated the undernourished pups significantly differently from the well nourished pups. The undernourished mothers spent more time than well nourished mothers in exploratory behaviors (rearing up and sniffing) and took longer to retrieve their pups. No significant differences occurred in the time spent with the pups or other maternal behaviors. Decreases in maternal attentiveness to pups found in previous studies may be a result of competition from exploratory or food seeking behaviors.

Maternal behaviour of undernourished mother rats towards well fed and underfed young

Mother rats which had been well fed or undernourished from mating were subjected to retrieving tests during lactation. They were tested on alternate occasions with strange, well or poorly fed young. Undernourished mothers were less efficient retrievers than control mothers. Whether the pups were well or poorly fed made no difference to retrieving performance, but well fed pups elicited more licking from both types of mother. A marked tendency by the undernourished mothers to rear against the sides of the cage may have contributed to their poor retrieving performance. This difference also pertained outwith the home cage situation and is hence unlikely to reflect anticipation of feeding. Possible implications for pup development of the differences in mothers' behaviour are discussed.

NUTRITION, SEX, AND FETAL LUNG MATURATION

Extract: Maternal nutrition and the sex of a fetus appear to have important influences on fetal lung maturation and on the neonatal development of hyaline membrane disease. Amniotic fluid lecithin to sphingomyelin ratios and shake test values were greater in undernourished than in overnourished pregnancies after midgestation. There was a similar relation between levels of maternal nutrition and structural variables of fetal lung maturity. Using the same variables, the lungs of female fetuses matured somewhat more rapidly than the lungs of males. Hyaline membrane disease was almost twice as common in infants who died after overnourished gestations as in those who had undernourished mothers.

Maternal behaviour of undernourished mother rats

Undernourished mother rats were given daily meals throughout most or all of pregnancy and lactation, comprising about half the amount of a good quality diet taken by controls. Their daily pattern of nest occupation and desertion during lactation was quite different from that of controls. Retrieving tests were carried out at 4, 6, 8 and 10 days after parturition. Underfed mothers were less efficient than controls in retrieving their young on days 8 and 10, and were less likely to lick their young during the test period. They also spent much more time rearing on their hind legs. Among undernourished females the number of young retrieved was negatively correlated with duration of rearing. The significance of the differences in maternal behaviour for offspring development is discussed.

Growth of the rat skeleton after severe nutritional intrauterine and post-natal retardation

Pregnant rats were undernourished from the fifth day after copulation. The offspring of control and undernourished dams were reared in litters of eight. Under-nourished and control pups were killed at birth and 21 days. Undernourished animals were rehabilitated from 21 to 140 days of age and compared with controls of the same age. Whole-body radiographs were taken, the dimension of the various bones measured and their degree of maturity was assessed according to a scoring system. The pups of undernourished mothers weighed less, and their skeletons were smaller and less mature than those of well-nourished mothers. The retardation in body weight and skeletal size became progressively greater during the period of undernutrition. Skeletal development was retarded less than bone size. No sex difference was found at 21 days. After rehabilitation for 119 days males were heavier than females and the previously undernourished animals of both sexes weighed less than than their controls. The length of the fore and hind limbs and the length of the skull recovered their normal size, but the length of the spine and the dimensions of the pelvis did not. The effect of the previous period of undernutrition on the ultimate dimensions of the different parts of the skeleton on rehabilitation is discussed in relation to the different timing of the peak velocity of the growth of individual bones.

Effect of undernutrition before and after birth on the growth and development of the rat brain.

Abstract Rats have been undernourished before and after birth in two ways so that pups of different ages but ( a ) of similar body weight and ( b ) of similar brain weight have been obtained. Brain weight and degree of development with respect to cholesterol, gangliosides, acetylcholinesterase activity and DNA content increased with age irrespective of body weight. The absolute amount of DNA was, however, related to brain weight rather than to age. In the severely undernourished offspring of undernourished mothers, the greatest degree of retardation of growth in the brain was in the cerebellum. In the forebrain, cerebellum and brain stem the undernutrition retarded the deposition of cholesterol. The concentration of ganglioside N -acetylneuraminic acid was decreased in the forebrain and brain stem only, and acetylcholinesterase activity was decreased in the brain stem only. On rehabilitation for 56 days after weaning, the animals and their brains remained small for their age. The forebrains and brain stems continued to contain low concentrations 0f cholesterol. All three parts contained low amounts of DNA and the brain stem a low concentration of ganglioside N -acetylneuraminic acid. The body weight, forebrain weight, and the concentration of cholesterol and absolute amount of DNA in it did not recover completely after rehabilitation to 140 days of age.

Ceruloplasmin activity in infants born to undernourished mothers.

SummarySerum copper levels and serum ceruloplasmin activity were estimated in maternal venous blood and corresponding cord blood of 12 well‐nourished and 18 undernourished women. The levels of both blood constituents were not different in these groups. The levels in the infants born to undernourished mother were significantly lower than those in infants born to well‐nourished mothers. It is suggested that maternal malnutrition adversely affects the protein synthesizing capacity of the livers of the offspring. A significant correlation was observed between birthweight and serum ceruloplasmin activity of the newborb. The livers of low birthweight infants may have a reduced capacity to synthesize proteins.

INTRA-UTERINE UNDERNUTRITION AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

The guinea pig, like the human, initiates the period of rapid brain growth in utero and thus provides a model for measuring the effects of maternal malnutrition on intra-uterine brain growth. In these studies the newborn of undernourished guinea pig mothers showed significant reductions in body weight and brain weight, cellularity, protein, cholesterol, cerebroside, and sulfatide contents. The reductions in wet brain weight and protein content were significant for cerebellum but not for cerebrum. Animals undernourished in utero and fed normally after birth showed normal whole brain weight, cerebroside and sulfatide contents, and normal cerebrum cellularity by adulthood. However, the type of cells increasing in the cerebrum during postnatal rehabilitation is unknown. Wet weight and cellularity were still diminished by 22% and 17%, respectively, in the adult cerebella. The results suggest that adequate postnatal nutrition will offset some, though not all of the brain biochemical changes resulting from fetal undernutrition.

Urinary estrogen excretion in undernourished pregnant Indian women: Effect of dietary supplement on urinary estrogens and birth weights of infants

Information regarding the estrogen levels in urine of undernourished women has so far been scanty. In this investigation, estrogen levels have been determined in pregnant Indian women belonging to the high and low socioeconomic groups at various trimesters of pregnancy. Also the effect of dietary supplements on estrogen levels in the urine of undernourished mothers and the birth weights of their infants has been studied. It was found that estrogen levels were significantly higher in the women of the high socioeconomic group. Administration of dietary supplements to women of the low income group significantly raised the estrogen excretion in their urine. A close correlation between birth weight of the infants and urinary estrogens was also observed.

CHILDHOOD NUTRITION IN CONTRASTING NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

The Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition and National Defense of the US federal government has organized cross-sectional surveys in Lebanon, Jordan, Iran, Pakistan, Burma, Thailand, Korea, Republic of China (Taiwan), Viet Nam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Libya, Ethiopia, Spain, the West Indies, Colombia, Ecuador, Chile, Uruguay, and Turkey. Unfortunately, a comparable representative study has not yet been done in the United States. Furthermore, cross-sectional and retrospective studies leave many questions to be answered by additional approaches. Woodruff's study, reported in this issue (page 214), compares selected observations in Lebanon, Venezuela, and Ethiopia with more intensive observations carried out in Michigan. Newly Developing Countries.— The underdeveloped areas offer scientists a laboratory of fairly homogeneous cohorts of undernourished children and mothers due to environmental influences. To public health workers, nutrition is recognized as a fundamental factor in health, development, and population dynamics. In these areas, the apathetic stunted children call out for a better