Undergraduate Education Research Articles

Academic Coaching in Entry-level Doctor of Physical Therapy Education.

Learners face a variety of academic and personal challenges that may impact performance in Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) programs. Academic coaching has emerged as a student support model within undergraduate medical education but has not yet been evaluated in DPT education. The purpose of this method/model presentation was to describe the development, implementation, and evaluation of 2 coaching programs. Two hybrid DPT programs implemented a coaching approach to support students. The coaching framework was centered around an individualized relationship between the learner and faculty coach to promote reflection, growth, agency, and persistence in educational and professional development. Faculty members were prepared and supported to serve as coaches. Coaches met with their assigned students at regular intervals throughout the program, including clinical experiences. The coaching programs were assessed through program exit surveys and an alumni survey. Graduates from both programs reported that the coaching program was effective and supported a sense of belonging or connectedness within their DPT program. They reported several specific activities that were part of the coaching program structure that supported its effectiveness, including group-based orientation activities and 1:1 meetings with their coach. Graduates also provided suggestions for program improvement including increased structure and more opportunities to connect with their peers and coaches in a nonacademic setting. Two DPT programs successfully implemented coaching as their student support model. With appropriate preparation, planning, and support, coaching programs have the potential to provide individualized and meaningful support for DPT students.

Medical students’ perceptions of live versus recorded pathology lectures at a South African medical school during the Covid-19 pandemic: unique lessons for undergraduate pathology education in a diverse student population

Abstract Introduction/Objective The morphological depiction and interactive learning vital to the core discipline of anatomical pathology posed specific challenges during emergency remote teaching (ERT) in the COVID 19 pandemic. Using voice-over PowerPoint presentations (VoPPPs) in anatomical pathology at Wits University in Johannesburg, South Africa during this time provided a unique opportunity to determine students’ perceptions of this teaching and learning modality. Objective To determine a South African medical students’ perceptions of live lectures vs online learning with VoPPPs during the Covid-19 pandemic. Methods/Case Report A descriptive, cross-sectional, online survey was sent to 326 4th year medical students in 2020. The questionnaire consisted of closed- and open-ended questions. Descriptive and inferential statistical tests were conducted on the quantitative data. Content analysis was performed on the open-ended responses. Results (if a Case Study enter NA) The survey response rate was 56.75%. Respondents preferred the traditional lecture format to the exclusive use of VoPPPs (48.6% to 34.6%) for pathology learning. Respondents appreciated the flexibility of learning from VoPPPs, resulting in blended learning being the preferred approach (45.9% vs 44.3 for live lectures only and 9.7% for VoPPPs only, respectively). Respondents indicated a need for more effective use of VoPPPs regarding the depiction of pathology images, more opportunities for feedback, and more online learning modalities in addition to VoPPPs. Some respondents from rural areas stated that their home study environments were not conducive to online learning modalities. Conclusion Blended learning combines the interactivity possible in contact sessions with the time benefits of online learning for undergraduate pathology education. However, educators should use various online methods rather than relying solely on VoPPPs. This is especially important when considering the visual nature of pathology lectures. Where VoPPPs are used, they should be used effectively, mainly using good quality, labelled images to depict morphology. The preference for blended learning offers exciting possibilities for developing integrated learning platforms in the future, however, these must be tailored to suit the needs of students from economically and ethnically diverse backgrounds.

Investigating transgressive actions undertaken by students while studying mathematics via primary sources

We describe an exploration informed by transgressionism and supported by data collected from students’ report of learning abstract algebra via curriculum materials where primary historical sources are central to their design, namely Primary Source Projects (PSPs). PSPs require students to actively engage with primary source texts written by historical mathematicians and counter students’ more traditional mathematical learning experiences. We explore the components forming transgressive triads consisting of <i>outcomes</i> of <i>transgressive actions</i> taken to overcome <i>boundaries </i>encountered in students’ study of mathematics. Particularly, we focus on transgressive actions undertaken by students and provide exemplars identified from data to empirically support our theoretical conceptualisations. We end with a discussion by proposing research that draws upon transgressions in both learning mathematics via PHS in particular and with regard to other approaches in undergraduate mathematics education which may place students in contexts in which their familiar is made unfamiliar.

Veterinary neurology residency training in Europe-A survey on preparation and plans.

Difficulties in recruitment of veterinary specialists to academia is an ongoing problem for university teaching hospitals. The aim of this study was to determine the proportion of veterinary neurology specialists that plan to work in academia after their residency training and identify the main factors that may influence that decision. An electronic survey was distributed to European College of Veterinary Neurology (ECVN) residents in training and those that completed their residencies within the previous 12 months. Despite similar numbers of residents training in clinical practice and academic institutions, most respondents (79.7%) planned to work in private practice. The most influential factors for deciding future workplace were quality of life, salary, location, and the number of other specialists (with specialists in subjects other than neurology viewed as more important than neurologists) working in the same institution. The most common reasons for not choosing academia were low compensation, excessive bureaucracy, and high administrative workload compared to private clinical practice. Academic institutions need to review support for academic staff and provide stronger mentorship to overcome these problems and ensure provision of high-quality undergraduate teaching in veterinary neurology as well as promoting advancement of the field through basic and applied research.

From classroom to bedside: The role of point‐of‐care ultrasound in undergraduate medical education

AbstractIntroductionPoint‐of‐Care Ultrasound (POCUS) has become an indispensable tool for diagnosis, monitoring, and procedure guidance in various medical specialties. Structured POCUS training is essential to provide users with the knowledge and skills needed for clinical practice. Many medical schools have integrated POCUS into their curriculum to familiarize their students with this technology early on in their medical careers.ObjectiveThis review aims to explore the integration of POCUS into the undergraduate medical education curriculum, discussing its benefits, challenges, barriers, and strategies for effective implementation.DiscussionThe POCUS educational framework uses various methods that combine the delivery of theoretical knowledge with practical skills training. It is highly recommended that medical schools include the fundamentals of ultrasound physics and knobology, structural anatomy, physiology, basic pathology of various organs, and basic instructions on ultrasound needle guidance for procedures in their POCUS curriculum. Importantly, the curriculum should include a comprehensive plan for assessing competency. The integration of POCUS into undergraduate medical education offers several benefits, including facilitating the teaching of basic sciences, enhancing physical examination skills, improving clinical problem‐solving abilities, preparing students for future clinical work, and enhancing the overall educational experience. However, there are challenges associated with this integration, such as a limited availability of qualified instructors, the high financial and logistical investment required, and the complexities of incorporating POCUS into an already compact medical curriculum. With the advancements in ultrasound technology and the integration of artificial intelligence, future research studies are needed to assess how these developments influence the integration of POCUS in undergraduate medical education.

Integrating a Longitudinal Course on the Principles of Research in an Outcomes-Based Undergraduate Medical Education Curriculum.

Teaching and learning approaches can support medical students in developing the research skills necessary to be adept consumers of scientific research. Despite various influencing factors, existing literature on effective strategies in undergraduate medical education remains limited. Using a spiraled curriculum, we created and evaluated a longitudinal course to enhance medical students' research abilities. During a recent curriculum renewal at one medical school, a three-year longitudinal course on the principles of research was developed and implemented. The innovation of this course includes the sequential nature and deliberate redundancy of curriculum content, how new knowledge is linked to prior learning, and the progressive level of difficulty in knowledge application and skill development. The authors analysed faculty members' and students' satisfaction and their perceptions of each session of the course using program evaluation data collected between 2019 and 2021. Both faculty members and students recognized the benefits of revisiting concepts and highlighted learning outcomes like improved synthesis of information, explaining findings to patients, and enhanced critical thinking. The adoption of a spiraled curriculum in undergraduate medical education offers a systematic approach for developing students' research skills. The positive reception of this innovation underscores its potential to help future health professionals form a professional identity as adept researchers. However, its implications demand careful consideration and ongoing evaluation to ensure that the desired outcomes are sustained.

Is “Application” Everything about Studying for a University Degree? The Multiple Influences Shaping Undergraduates in Chinese Higher Education in Contemporary Times

Abstract Based on the self-reflection of 22 undergraduate students at a renowned Chinese university regarding their journey towards obtaining a bachelor’s degree, this study reveals the discrepancy between the idealistic functions and missions of higher education as perceived by students and their actual implementations in the real world. It further explores the multifaceted logics exerted by the higher education environment on students during their educational journey. Data analysis shows that contemporary global neoliberalism, alongside traditional Chinese cultural ideologies such as Confucianism and Daoism, significantly impacts the educational philosophies of university students to varying extents. These diverse ideologies drive students to demonstrate varied learning states and behaviors, showcasing the complex interplay of global and local forces in shaping student experiences in higher education.

Resident Instruction: Improving End-of-Year Medical Student Ultrasound Performance.

Having a limited number of trained faculty is a barrier to successful incorporation of ultrasound into undergraduate medical education. We evaluated the effectiveness of a resident-led extended focused assessment with sonography in trauma (eFAST) session administered to fourth-year medical students during their emergency medicine clerkship by measuring students' end-of-year eFAST performance and confidence. This was a single-site cross-sectional study of all graduating medical students enrolled in fourth-year clerkships between May 1, 2022 and April 30, 2023. A 60-minute, team-based eFAST session (intervention), taught by emergency medicine residents, was added to students' fourth-year emergency medicine clerkship in September 2022. All students were assigned to review an eFAST video (control). End-of-year performance and self-reported confidence assessments used a 20-point objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) and a 5-point Likert scale, respectively. The mean OSCE and confidence scores for control and intervention groups were compared using two-sample t tests and repeated after removing students exposed to additional US experiences. Of 113 eligible students, 103 students participated: 48 in the control group, 55 in the intervention group. The intervention group scored higher on the OSCE than the control group (11.9 ±4.6 vs 9.9 ±5.1, P=.04) and reported similar confidence (3.2 ±1.0 vs 2.8 ±1.2; P=.09). After removing the 28 students with additional US experiences, the intervention group scored higher (10.8 ± 4.4 vs 8.2 ± 4.0; P=.01) and reported higher confidence (3.0 ±1.0 vs. 2.3 ±1.0, P=.01). Resident-taught eFAST instruction during emergency medicine clerkships led to improved end-of-year fourth-year medical student eFAST performance and confidence.

Comparing Scoring Consistency of Large Language Models with Faculty for Formative Assessments in Medical Education.

The Liaison Committee on Medical Education requires that medical students receive individualized feedback on their self-directed learning skills. Pre-clinical students are asked to complete multiple spaced critical appraisal assignments. However, the individual feedback requires significant faculty time. As large language models (LLMs) can score and generate feedback, we explored their use in grading formative assessments through validity and feasibility lenses. To explore the consistency and feasibility of using an LLM to assess and provide feedback for formative assessments in undergraduate medical education. This was a cross-sectional study of pre-clinical students' critical appraisal assignments at University of Illinois College of Medicine (UICOM) during the 2022-2023 academic year. An initial sample of ten assignments was used to develop a prompt. For each student entry, the de-identified assignment and prompt were provided to ChatGPT 3.5, and its scoring was compared to the existing faculty grade. Differences in scoring of individual items between ChatGPT and faculty were assessed. Scoring consistency using inter-rater reliability (IRR) was calculated as percent exact agreement. Chi-squared test was used to determine if there were significant differences in scores. Psychometric characteristics including internal-consistency reliability, area under precision-recall curve (AUCPR), and cost were studied. In this cross-sectional study, 111 pre-clinical students' faculty graded assignments were compared with that of ChatGPT and the scoring of individual items was comparable. The overall agreement between ChatGPT and faculty was 67% (OR = 2.53, P < 0.001); mean AUCPR was 0.69 (range 0.61-0.76). Internal-consistency reliability of ChatGPT was 0.64 and its use resulted in a fivefold reduction in faculty time, and potential savings of 150 faculty hours. This study of psychometric characteristics of ChatGPT demonstrates the potential role for LLMs to assist faculty in assessing and providing feedback for formative assignments.

Bones at Home

Remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a range of pedagogical challenges for anthropology laboratory courses. In biological anthropology courses such as Human Osteology, hands-on experience is essential to achieving learning outcomes, including basic bone and feature (i.e., landmark) identification, identification from fragmentary remains, and age and sex estimation. To address the need for training that includes object-based, tactile (haptic) learning in fields such as biological anthropology and archaeology, all Human Osteology students at Mount Royal University and the University of Manitoba took home plastic model skeletons. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how well remotely educated undergraduates (REUs) met human osteology learning objectives when supported by plastic model skeletons at home. We present the results of a survey designed to test core osteological skills obtained by REUs in comparison with undergraduates educated with in-person laboratory components (IPUs) and experts in the field (zero to four and five or more years of experience). REU scores did not differ significantly from those of IPU or Junior Experts with less than five years of experience. Students performed well in bone identification but were limited in their ability to apply common sex and age estimation methods and to identify incomplete elements. Our findings reinforce the importance of haptic learning and years of experience in human osteological learning. They support the use of take-home models as valuable resources in both remote and in-person undergraduate teaching. This work is a step toward more inclusive universal instructional design that can be applied across various anthropology laboratory courses.

The challenging reality of the clinical learning environment at Damascus University Faculty of Dental Medicine in Syria: A qualitative study

Introduction In Syria, specialist dentists undergo five years of undergraduate education and four years of postgraduate education. In the latter, students engage in treating complex cases as part of their professional training. This study aimed to obtain in-depth qualitative understanding of the clinical learning environment at Damascus University Faculty of Dental Medicine, Syria. Methods Semi-structured interviews were held with eight postgraduate dental students at Damascus University Faculty of Dental Medicine. The faculty has eight clinical departments; therefore, a single participant was purposively sampled from each department. The male-female ratio of the eight interviewed participants was 1:1. All interviews were conducted between 26th April 2020 and 8th January 2021. Data were analyzed inductively using reflective thematic analysis. Pragmatic saturation was discussed during the analysis and the authors made an interpretative judgement to stop data collection at the eighth interview. Results Major themes which emerged covered different aspects of the clinical learning environment such as clinical training, social interaction and assessment procedures. Faculty’s negligence of their teaching duties was one of the most recurrent themes. In clinical training and due to faculty inaccessibility, students had to rely on themselves or their senior peers in training. The social climate was perceived negatively and assessment was described as unfair and biased. Discussion The findings of this study were framed within Gruppen et al. (2019) theory of the learning environment wherein four dimensions emerge: the personal, the social, the organizational and the material. The findings of this study showcased the continuing deterioration of the clinical learning environment at Damascus University. It is hoped that these findings will encourage decision makers to introduce a comprehensive reform that addresses the curriculum, teaching practices and assessment procedures in clinical professional training.

Expansion of UK medical student numbers: what are the challenges and opportunities for undergraduate dermatology education?

This correspondence piece addresses the topical issue of the UK government's plan to expand medical school numbers and its implications for undergraduate medical education, affecting both learners and educators. The article summarises the results of a survey of undergraduate dermatology educators, highlighting their concerns about the challenges and impact of increasing student numbers. The article highlights the risk of a reduction in the volume and quality of clinical learning opportunities in undergraduate dermatology as a consequence of student numbers exceeding clinical departmental capacity and resources.

Evaluation of problem-based learning for pharmacology based on a comprehensive analysis in undergraduate students.

Problem-based learning (PBL) has been widely employed in pharmacology teaching. However, the benefits of PBL for undergraduate students have not been clearly demonstrated. We performed a meta-analysis to compare the effects of PBL and lecture-based learning (LBL) in undergraduate pharmacology education. We systematically searched literature databases for comparative studies related to PBL pedagogy in the undergraduate pharmacology curriculum from the inception of the databases to December 2023. The obtained literature was screened according to the selection criteria, and Review Manager 5.4 was used for the meta-analysis of the included studies. A total of 33 comparative studies involving 4425 undergraduate students were enrolled. The standardized mean differences (95% confidence intervals) of the examination scores and students' self-rated scores on learning interest, comprehension of knowledge and thinking ability between PBL and LBL were calculated to be 2.03 (1.53-2.53), 0.50 (0.26-0.74), 0.69 (0.46-0.92), and 1.65 (1.21-2.09), respectively. The risk ratios of the proportion of satisfaction on improving students' learning interest, comprehension of knowledge, thinking ability, self-study ability, and communication skills were calculated to be 2.08 (1.17-3.71), 1.84 (1.26-2.67), 1.42 (1.19-1.69), 1.44 (1.16-1.79), and 1.66 (1.22-2.27), respectively. The current evidence indicates that PBL is more effective than LBL in improving examination scores and student satisfaction in undergraduate pharmacology education.

Development of the Joint Expeditionary Medical Officer.

The Uniformed Services University is known for its dual mission of preparing military medical officers for operational readiness and leadership roles. The Joint Expeditionary Medical Officer (JEMO) project is a novel internal program that was initiated in 2022 and aims to fortify and evaluate the essential Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSAs) within the School of Medicine's Molecules to Military Medicine curriculum that are pivotal for the development of a deployment-ready military medical officer. The JEMO-KSA program identifies and deliberately develops a core set of mission-critical skills during the course of students' undergraduate medical education. This helps ensure that Uniformed Services University graduates attain a strong foundational level of operational readiness across various military medical domains. Currently, 371 distinct KSAs have been integrated into the curriculum, with over 86% being assessed at different time frames. Over time, our goal is to present individual students with a customized JEMO "report card" depicting their readiness level; a document that could be updated and expanded throughout their military medical career. The JEMO project represents a significant stride toward optimizing the readiness of military medical officers by systematically identifying, strengthening, and assessing vital operational skills and abilities. With an ongoing commitment to excellence, the project envisages creating an even more robustly structured curriculum that is continually refined to address current operational readiness, setting a new standard for military medical education. While challenges such as accurately measuring the impact of integrated KSAs and continuously updating them to meet evolving military needs remain, the forward momentum associated with the JEMO project will help facilitate the development of military medical officers who have the KSAs to actively support mission success while simultaneously enhancing the overall effectiveness of military health care.

Teaching Sustainability in Science Education: Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Perceptions of the Role of Indigenous Knowledge

Encouraging sustainability in science education demands a collaborative approach, involving the integration of diverse knowledge systems, including indigenous and formal scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, educators’ perceptions of these knowledge systems are crucial factors to consider. This study investigated the perceptions of pre-service science teachers about the role of indigenous knowledge in promoting sustainability science education. The study was conducted at the Department of Integrated Science Education University of Education Winneba, Ghana and predominantly adopted a qualitative approach. A sample size of 54 Level 300 undergraduate pre-service science teachers were purposively chosen. These pre-service teachers have engaged with the science curriculum and syllabus through on-campus peer teaching and are prepared to take their internships in the country’s various second-cycle institutions. Emphasis is laid on the teaching of science to promote education for sustainable development in these institutions. Data were collected through an online questionnaire comprising open- and closed-ended items. The closed-ended items were quantified and analysed for clearer inference whereas thematic analysis was employed for qualitative data. The findings of the study established pre-service teachers’ affirmation of the potential of indigenous knowledge in providing education for sustainability if integrated into the teaching of science. The study recommended targeted interventions including the integration of indigenous knowledge into pre-service science teachers’ curriculum, training programmes, workshops, courses and campaigns aimed at increasing awareness, fostering positive attitudes, and promoting understanding and appreciation of indigenous knowledge and its role in sustainability.

Critical appraisal of Genelyn soft embalming for cadaveric surgical skill training: A systematic review.

Genelyn is a proprietary embalming solution used for preserving cadavers for surgical skill training (SST) and undergraduate teaching. The aim of this review is to examine the Genelyn embalming method critically by analyzing scientific publications that have employed this method for SST and undergraduate education. The systematic review process involved searching for all relevant articles in PubMed, Google Scholar, and Embase using the keywords "Genelyn," Genelyn embalming," "Genelyn embalmed cadaver," and "surgical skill training. All studies on Genelyn embalming published up to August 14, 2024, in the English language were eligible for inclusion. The literature review yielded 92 studies, 43 of which met the inclusion criteria. The Anatomical Quality Assurance (AQUA) tool from the International Evidence-Based Anatomy (iEBA) working group was used to assess and analyze the risk of bias in all the selected full-text articles. The selected studies reported that Genelyn embalming provided life-like joint range of motion, tissue pliability, and color. Cadaveric studies assessing embalming solutions typically had smaller sample sizes, and few of them compared Genelyn embalmed cadavers (GECs) with the other soft embalming solutions. Unlike Theil's embalming, Genelyn embalming is cost-effective, with easy steps for the preparation and storage of the solution and convenient handling of cadavers. Therefore, GECs serve as an efficient tool for SSTs.

Teaching of magnification in the undergraduate curriculum: A position statement from the British Endodontic Society Teachers of Endodontology Group.

This position statement on undergraduate teaching on the use of magnification in endodontics represents the consensus of the British Endodontic Society Teachers of Endodontology Group. Current clinical and scientific evidence, as well as the expertise of the committee, has been used to develop this statement. The contributors to this position statement consider, as a minimum requirement, the use of dental loupes in non-surgical endodontics at undergraduate level. It is recommended that the use of dental loupes should be integrated into endodontic clinical skills training and the performance of endodontic treatment in the undergraduate curriculum.

Dental education amid armed conflict in Sudan: Unveiling the impact on training.

The ongoing conflict in Sudan has severely disrupted the health professions education, notably in dentistry. This study aims to explore the impact of the armed conflict on dental education and training. A mixed-method cross-sectional study encompassed 29 dental schools in Khartoum, Darfur, Kordofan States, and Merowe City. Five key informants from the Sudanese Medical Specialization Board, the Human Resource Development Administration, and a university offering clinical dental master's programs were interviewed. Quantitative data on attacks against dental schools were collected through a structured Google form, and qualitative data on postgraduate training were obtained through semi-structured key informant interviews. Findings reveal that 79.3% of dental schools faced military assaults, with 73.9% experiencing looting and 60.9% repurposed as military bases. Notably, 44.8% of schools shifted to online education,3.4% collaborated with other universities, and 27.6% adopted a combined approach. Key informants' interviews unveiled disruptions in specialty training and housemanship, limiting access to crucial training facilities. The primary proposed solution was overseas training. Recurrently emphasized strategies to enhance the resilience of the training system included establishing dental centers in all states, collaborating with external training bodies, and anticipating and preparing for potential disasters. The adverse effects of the conflict on both undergraduate and postgraduate dental education are discernible, manifested through resource limitations, a shortage of dental materials and supplies within training facilities, and direct disruptions to clinical training due to attacks on healthcare institutions. The imperative need for urgent interventions is underscored to alleviate these consequences and safeguard the continuity of educational and training efforts.

A look at the early childhood teacher education undergraduate curriculum: is it gender sensitive?

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to investigate whether the Early Childhood Teacher Education Undergraduate Curriculum in Türkiye is gender sensitive. A document analysis method was used. Course contents were obtained from the Council of Higher Education, and the learning outcomes of the courses were accessed from the Early Childhood Teacher Education Undergraduate Program web page of a university. In the content and learning outcomes of the courses, the terms “gender (sex), men/women, social background, equality, children’s rights and democracy, cultural diversity, norm-normalisation, gender bias, sexism-homophobia, LGBTIQ+ were searched for gender sensitivity. We found that these terms are used in a limited way in the curriculum and are mostly included in the content of elective courses. The teacher education curriculum has limited content for pre-service teachers on gender equality. Adding new courses to the curriculum or improving the content of existing courses to support the perception of gender equality among teacher candidates is recommended.

Medical students’ knowledge on palliative care – a survey of teaching in Finland

Background Most studies on palliative medicine (PM) undergraduate education have focused on contents and organizational issues but not the outcome. Students’ learning outcomes should be studied to improve teaching in medical schools. Methods A questionnaire about perceived PM education and attitudes on palliative care (PC) was sent to 543 last year students in all five Finnish medical schools in 2018–2019. In total, 175 (32 %) responses were received from four universities. The students evaluated both the quantity and quality of their PM teaching, implementation of European Association for Palliative Care (EAPC) guidelines and their satisfaction to the training. There were two palliative case scenarios, and the students were asked to find the best treatment option. In addition, students´ attitudes towards end-of-life (EOL) care issues were examined. Results In the Finnish universities, PM education was available mainly integrated with oncology, geriatrics, and general medicine. A total of two universities also offered a specific PM course. In average, 50–70% of the EAPC curriculum was covered by lectures, small-group teaching, seminars, and bedside teaching with significant differences between faculties. Only 30–60 % of students were satisfied with the education received. The highest rankings were given in the universities with a special PM course. Students from these universities expressed less anxiety in facing EOL issues. Conclusions In Finland, the coverage of EAPC curriculum is satisfactory, but the PM education is mainly given integrated with other specialties. The dedicated course on PM was associated with increased perceived knowledge and satisfaction of PM education. However, PM training was not associated with students’ attitudes on PC.