Under-documented Languages Research Articles

Narrative Elicitation as Ethnography: Methodological Insights From the Examination of Children's Perspective Marking in Amdo Tibetan.

This paper employs a case study with Amdo Tibetan children to demonstrate the benefits of narrative elicitation for ethnographic language socialization research in under-studied languages. Primarily by examining spontaneous verbal interaction, existing language socialization research has demonstrated how salient grammatical resources shape children's understanding of cultural belief systems pertaining to sociality and the appropriate display of emotion. However, spontaneous data do not always capture children's full linguistic repertoires and competencies, and may therefore present a partial picture of their mastery over particular grammatical systems. One such area that remains to be studied is how children use interactional cues to build their emerging knowledge of grammatical perspective marking in Tibetan languages. This paper integrates narrative elicitation with ethnographic methods from language socialization to examine how Amdo Tibetan children mark perspective using evidentiality, the grammatically-obligatory encoding of knowledge source, an area not frequently documented in language socialization studies. Language socialization research involved 15-months of participant observation, audio-video recording, and analysis of spontaneous interactions with children aged 1–4. This ethnographic research found that adults' narratives highlighted local theories about the importance of compassion (Tib. snying rje) by using grammatical evidentiality to emphasize characters' direct experiences in the story-world. However, grammatical evidentiality was under-represented in children's spontaneous talk. To provide further insight into children's mastery of evidentiality in this culturally salient communicative genre, I conducted narrative elicitation tasks with seven Amdo Tibetan children, aged 2–7. By framing narrative elicitation tasks as forums for social interaction in family homes, I adapted a method traditionally used in experimentation to complement the study of naturalistic interaction. Interaction analysis of the elicited narratives found that family members positioned young children as novice narrators, leading to dialogic rather than monologic narratives. Young children co-constructed shared perspectives on narrated events, and used evidentiality in conventionalized ways by mirroring the grammatical forms of adults' previous utterances. By adapting narrative elicitation tasks to language socialization's ethnographic methods, this paper models how qualitative researchers can locate patterns in children's experiences of language across complementary settings of data collection, an endeavor that is particularly important to research with child speakers of under-documented languages.

Integrating Automated Segmentation and Glossing into Documentary and Descriptive Linguistics

Any attempt to integrate NLP systems to the study of endangered languages must take into consideration traditional approaches by both NLP and linguistics. This paper tests different strategies and workflows for morpheme segmentation and glossing that may affect the potential to integrate machine learning. Two experiments train Transformer models on documentary corpora from five under-documented languages. In one experiment, a model learns segmentation and glossing as a joint step and another model learns the tasks into two sequential steps. We find the sequential approach yields somewhat better results. In a second experiment, one model is trained on surface segmented data, where strings of texts have been simply divided at morpheme boundaries. Another model is trained on canonically segmented data, the approach preferred by linguists, where abstract, underlying forms are represented. We find no clear advantage to either segmentation strategy and note that the difference between them disappears as training data increases. On average the models achieve more than a 0.5 F1-score, with the best models scoring 0.6 or above. An analysis of errors leads us to conclude consistency during manual segmentation and glossing may facilitate higher scores from automatic evaluation but in reality the scores may be lowered when evaluated against original data because instances of annotator error in the original data are “corrected” by the model.

Modelling stylistic variation in threatened and under-documented languages

AbstractThe centrality of style is uncontested in sociolinguistics: it is an essential construct in the study of linguistic variation and change in the speech community. This is not the case in the language-obsolescence literature, where stylistic variation among endangered-language speakers is described as an ephemeral, or “marginal” resource, and where speakers exhibiting “stylistic shrinkage” become “monostylistic”. This argument is invoked in variationist theory too, where “monostylism” is presented as support for the tenets of Audience Design (Bell 1984). This article reports on a study that adopts variationist methods in a context of severe language endangerment. Evidence from two linguistic variables in Francoprovençal demonstrates the presence of socially meaningful stylistic variation among the last generation of fluent speakers, offering counter-evidence to classic claims. This evidence is used to argue that accounts of stylistic variation in language obsolescence are not sufficiently nuanced and should be reconsidered in light of recent research.

Corpus Phonetics for Under-Documented Languages: A Vowel Harmony Example

Corpus phonetics is enabling the comprehensive analysis of large digital speech collections. In this paper, we develop a corpus phonetics workflow that is flexible enough to be easily applied to under-documented languages. To test the capabilities of this workflow we choose a challenging vowel reduction and vowel harmony problem. In Kera (Chadic) it has been shown (Pearce, 2012), that not only is phonetic reduction linked to the phonetic duration of the vowel, but also that reduction is blocked in vowel harmony domains. We are able to replicate previously published experiments by Pearce that were originally completed using manual measurements. We expect that our corpus phonetics workflow will be of value to phonologists working on other languages.

Introduction to the special issue on the phonetics of under-documented languages.

As scientists, it is important to sample as broadly as possible; however, there is a bias in the research performed on the speech acoustics of the world's languages toward work on languages of convenience (e.g., English). This special issue seeks to initiate increased publication of acoustic research on the sounds of the world's languages. The special issue contains a sample of 25 under-documented languages. While large relative to previous work (particularly in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America), the 23 articles in this issue just scratch the surface. To have a better understanding of the fundamentals of speech communication, it is imperative, as a research community, to make a concerted effort to learn more about how speech sounds are perceived and produced in a wide variety of languages.

Tonal split and laryngeal contrast of onset consonant in Lili Wu Chinese.

This study examines the acoustic properties concerning tonal split and stop onsets in an under-documented Wu Chinese variety, Lili Wu, using speech production data collected from field research. Lili Wu Chinese has been reported to demonstrate an unusual tonal split phenomenon known as "aspiration-induced tonal split" (ATS). ATS refers to the distinct lowering of f0 of a lexical tone over syllables beginning with a voiceless aspirated obstruent, compared to that of syllables beginning with an unaspirated obstruent. Two debates lingering in the existing literature are discussed: (i) is ATS an on-going change or a completed change? and (ii) is it onset aspiration or vowel breathiness that directly triggers ATS? Results suggest that ATS is a completed change, which, however, is conditioned by tonal contexts. Regarding the second debate, results suggest that neither aspiration nor breathiness serves as the direct trigger for tonal split. Moreover, one unexpected on-going sound change was observed: The breathiness of vowels after voiced onsets seems to be disappearing among the younger generation. These findings extend the understanding of the acoustic properties of tonal development in a complex system and highlight the importance of experimental methods in understanding the sound structure and changes of under-documented languages.

A cross-linguistic study of phonetic correlates of metrical structure in under-documented languages

Although languages with rhythmic stress have been extensively described and analyzed in the phonology literature, there has been little phonetic verification of the metrical structures suggested by these stress patterns. This paper presents results of a cross-linguistic study of the acoustic correlates of foot structure in several under-documented languages with morphologically complex words providing the necessary backdrop for the realization of rhythmic metrical structure. Various potential acoustic exponents of metrical structure are considered, including duration, F0, intensity, and formant frequencies. The targeted languages include Muskogean languages of the United States (Koasati, Muskogee, and Chickasaw), Circassian languages spoken primarily in Turkey and Russia (Kabardian and Adyghe), the Tukanoan language Kubeo of Brazil and Colombia, and the Arawak language Mojeno Trinitario of Bolivia. The languages differ in their foot templates (trochaic vs. iambic), the direction of their metrical parse (left-to-right vs. right-to-left), their degree of metrical rhythm, and whether they also possess lexical tone or not. Results suggest considerable diversity in the acoustic manifestations of metrical structure (including the possibility of lack of rhythmic feet even in long words) and in the relationship between the word-level metrical system and other prosodic features, including intonation and (in tonal languages) lexical tone.Although languages with rhythmic stress have been extensively described and analyzed in the phonology literature, there has been little phonetic verification of the metrical structures suggested by these stress patterns. This paper presents results of a cross-linguistic study of the acoustic correlates of foot structure in several under-documented languages with morphologically complex words providing the necessary backdrop for the realization of rhythmic metrical structure. Various potential acoustic exponents of metrical structure are considered, including duration, F0, intensity, and formant frequencies. The targeted languages include Muskogean languages of the United States (Koasati, Muskogee, and Chickasaw), Circassian languages spoken primarily in Turkey and Russia (Kabardian and Adyghe), the Tukanoan language Kubeo of Brazil and Colombia, and the Arawak language Mojeno Trinitario of Bolivia. The languages differ in their foot templates (trochaic vs. iambic), the direction of their metrical parse (l...

Phonetic documentation in the literature: Coverage rates for topics and languages

With the introduction of automatic methods for examining both the acoustic and articulatory aspects of speech, our knowledge of the phonetic details of well-studied languages has grown substantially. Research on the phonetics of under-documented languages has expanded, but the breadth of coverage remains a challenge. What topics within the sound systems of these languages should be documented? With an ultimate aim of a reasonably complete typological assessment, should researchers focus on particular language families or phenomena and exclude others? Here, a survey of several hundred articles was undertaken, examining three major venues in the phonetics literature: Journal of Phonetics, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, and publications from the UCLA Languages of the World project (which appeared in various venues). 20 features were found to be addressed in many studies, and a rough guide to the coverage for a language can be seen in the total number of features reported in a study. Coverage has increased over time, but most studies still address a small percentage of the phonetic substance of the target language. Coverage across language family and region also increased but is still skewed toward Indo-European languages. Future directions and recommendations will be presented.

Stop, approximant, and timing slot: The changing faces of the velar stop in Iwaidja

Limited access to speakers and incomplete lexical knowledge are common challenges facing phonetic description of under-documented languages. We address these challenges by taking a multi-dimensional approach, seeking to constrain our phonetic description by covariation across acoustic and articulatory parameters. We demonstrate the approach through an analysis of velar consonsants in the Australian Aboriginal language Iwaidja. Existing accounts contrast a velar stop /k/ with a velar approximant /ɰ/ in word-medial position (Evans 2009). Converging evidence from ultrasound images of the tongue body and acoustic analysis of intensity data reveal that the posited opposition is not consistent across speakers (N = 4) and lexical items. Unsupervised categorization of the phonetic data indicates two phonetic categories, appropriately labelled as [a] and [ɰ], which do not map consistently to dictionary labels in existing descriptions. We conclude that speaker-specific allophonic variation is the result of an ongoing process of lenition of /k/ between sonorant segments which has not yet phonologized. More broadly, integrating phonetic dimensions revealed categories that were ill-defined on the basis of just acoustic or articulatory measures alone. Depth of analysis, characterized by phonetic multi-dimensionality, may support robust generalization where broad analysis (multiple speakers, large corpora) are impractical or impossible.Limited access to speakers and incomplete lexical knowledge are common challenges facing phonetic description of under-documented languages. We address these challenges by taking a multi-dimensional approach, seeking to constrain our phonetic description by covariation across acoustic and articulatory parameters. We demonstrate the approach through an analysis of velar consonsants in the Australian Aboriginal language Iwaidja. Existing accounts contrast a velar stop /k/ with a velar approximant /ɰ/ in word-medial position (Evans 2009). Converging evidence from ultrasound images of the tongue body and acoustic analysis of intensity data reveal that the posited opposition is not consistent across speakers (N = 4) and lexical items. Unsupervised categorization of the phonetic data indicates two phonetic categories, appropriately labelled as [a] and [ɰ], which do not map consistently to dictionary labels in existing descriptions. We conclude that speaker-specific allophonic variation is the result of an ongoi...

Under-documented languages expand phonetic typology

The set of speech sounds known to be used in human languages continues to grow ever larger as more information becomes available on previously under-documented languages. In addition, the range of contrastive distinctions known to be employed continues to be enlarged. A brief survey of categories of sounds that have been added to phonetic typology as a result of work on such languages will be presented, followed by exemplification of the specific case of Yélî Dnye (ISO 693 yle). This language, spoken on Rossel Island, Papua New Guinea by about 3000 people, has large contrastive inventories of both consonants and vowels (58 consonants, 34 vowels). It is the only language known to include sets of doubly articulated labial-alveolar and labial-postalveolar plosives and nasals in its inventory (in addition to the more widespread category of labial-velars). Moreover, the stops contrast plain, prenasalized and nasally released categories, and some of them occur distinctively palatalized. Thus, there are at least nine consonant types not known from any other language. Yélî Dnye is also the only language known to have a contrast between oral and nasalized vowels following nasally released stops. Our knowledge of this language therefore enlarges our perspective on how human languages may differ.

Foreword

With this volume, Acta linguistica is entering its 5th year. We would like to announce, with our great pleasure, that the journal has undergone some changes and will from now be published twice a year, with its summer and winter volume. This summer volume includes researches with a common topic of practicing a language, whether in educational, and religious institutions, or in the languages primary surroundings. In this spirit, the volume is divided into two parts, with the first devoted to the methodology of language teaching, focusing mainly on Chinese and Japanese language and presently still under-researched dyslexia role in language studies, and the second focusing on under-documented languages and their gap between language policies and the actual state of language use.The first paper by Katja Simončič, entitled Evaluating Approaches to Teaching and Learning Chinese Vocabulary from the Learning Theories Perspective: An Experimental Case Study, discusses two basic approaches to teaching Chinese vocabulary, and evaluates them based on the results of experimental study on Slovene students of Chinese.The next two papers deal with the different lexica in Japanese language. Nataliia Vitalievna Kutafeva's research, entitled Japanese Onomatopoeic Expressions with Quantitative Meaning analyzes the lexical mode of expression of quantitative meanings and their semantics with the help of onomatopoeic (giongo) and mimetic (gitaigo) words, and based on it proposes the new arrangement of semantic groups.Kiyomi Fujii’s research, entitled Blogging Identity: How L2 Learners Express Themselves, discusses identity expression in blogs by Japanese language learners on the intermediate and advanced level.The paper by Nagisa Moritoki Škof, Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: On the Necessity of Dyslexia Research, shows an insight to dyslexia and through an outline of the present state of accepting and treating leaning disabilities in the Japanese education system stresses the importance of incounting dyslexia in language education in general.Manel Herat in his paper Functions of English vs. Other Languages in Sri Lankan Buddhist Rituals in the UK, analyzes the language shifts from the Sinhala and Pali languages to English at Buddhist festivals and sermons in UK. Next paper by Ali Ammar and his colleagues, Language Policy and Medium of Instruction Issue in Pakistan, briefly re-explores the situation of languages in the country and studies the latest language policy of Pakistan and its implications for local languages.The last research paper in this volume Bhadarwahi: A Typological Sketch was written by Amitabh Vikram Dwivedi and is an attempt to describe phonological and morphosyntactic features of the under-documented Bhadarwahi language belonging to Indo-Aryan language family.Finally, in the context of describing under-documented languages, the influence of the existing language policy is also noticed by Erwin Soriano FERNANDEZ and his book review on Pangasinan, entitled Panuntunán na Ortograpiya éd salitan PANGASINAN 2012. Manila: Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino.

Describing Morphosyntax: A Guide for Field Linguists

Current estimates are that around 3,000 of the 6,000 languages now spoken may become extinct during the next century. Some 4,000 of these existing languages have never been described, or described only inadequately. This book is a guide for linguistic fieldworkers who wish to write a description of the morphology and syntax of one of these many under-documented languages. It uses examples from many languages both well known and virtually unknown; it offers readers one possible outline for a grammatical description, with many questions designed to help them address the key topics. The appendices offer guidance on text and elicited data, and on sample reference grammars which readers might wish to consult.

Some Remarks on the Linguistic Position of Thao

Over the past two decades, much progress has been made in the study of the aboriginal languages of Taiwan. Despite these advances, many of the fifteen surviving languages remain inadequately described, and their histories poorly understood. The major purpose of this paper is to show that Thao, one of the most endangered and underdocumented languages, has been misclassified because of insufficient attention to the problem of direct and indirect inheritance. A careful consideration of the linguistic position of Thao sheds light on the broader ethnohistory of central Taiwan, and highlights the importance of fundamental principles of historical method that extend well beyond this particular case. 1. PREVIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF THAO. The first serious attempt to subgroup the languages of Taiwan was that of Dyen (1963, I965), who did not consider Thao. Shortly thereafter, Ferrell (1969) proposed a classification of all languages, including those known only from seventeenth century Dutch religious documents and from late nineteenth-early twentieth century Japanese scientific surveys. The result was a division into three major groupings: Atayalic (Atayal, Sediq), Tsouic (Tsou, Kanakanabu, Saaroa), and (all other languages). Ferrell further subdivided into two major branches, called I and II, but at the same time he clearly expressed his reservations about the reality of as a genetic unit. In the case of Yami, closely related to the languages of the Batanes and Babuyan Islands in the northern Philippines, it was apparent from the beginning that the term Paiwanic was more a temporary convenience than the label for a seriously defended hypothesis about linguistic history. For most scholars, Ferrell's tripartite classification of the languages has continued to serve as a convenient model until the present. The first challenge to the reality of was presented by Li (1985), who argued that the Atayalic languages should be combined with Saisiyat and Pazeh into a larger Northern Formosan group. Although this scheme did not affect the classification of Thao, Li (1990) proposed a comprehensive subgrouping of the extant languages, in which Thao and Bunun form a branch of Southern