Uncontrolled Fires Research Articles

Rural Fires—Causes of Human Losses in the 2017 Fires in Portugal

Extreme wildfires are increasingly rising to intense and uncontrolled fires, with dimension and destructive potentials that are greater than what has been seen and dealt with. The hazards posed by these fires increase significantly when they approach the wild–urban interface, with relevant environmental and socio-economic consequences. The 2009 Victorian bushfires and the 2017 Portugal wildfires are powerful reminders, and they have demonstrated the need to better understand why mitigation plans have failed to protect the community in these events and to improve community resilience. The year 2017 is a milestone in the history of wildfires in Portugal, not only because of the vast burned area but also due to the high number of fatalities. The two occurrences were at different times (June and October) but were geographically close (region of centre of Portugal). A total of 117 deaths occurred in both events and 92% of the victims were in wild–urban interface areas. This paper analyses and discusses the characteristics and causes of death of the victims of these two events: age, place of death, distance from place of death to place of residence and last-minute choices to aim to understand the actions that people took in the face of the approaching fire, which led to their death. In both cases, most people died fleeing the fire without any information from the competent authorities. In the end, it is possible to identify risk factors that lead to the death of civilians due to wildfires, such as the increase in demand for rurality by young people from big cities with no previous contact with wildfires; on the other hand, there is the ageing of the population residing in forest areas, who were previously physically and structurally prepared to deal with fires and are currently no longer able to.

Simulation of dynamic processes when a soil-throwing drum meets an obstacle

The problem of combating forest fires is very relevant to this day. The development of machines designed to extinguish and prevent uncontrolled forest fires, especially in waterless areas, is the most important area of scientific research. The article presents scientific research on simulation modeling of the interaction of a soil-marking drum with obstacles of two types: stones and logging residues. For the study, a simulation method was used in the 3D-CAD environment of the SolidWorks Simulation system, which made it possible to conduct a virtual experiment of a solid model and determine the behavior under static and dynamic loads that occur in emergency situations. The purpose of the work was to develop a 3D model of a soil-throwing drum machine for extinguishing and preventing forest fires to conduct simulation studies on a virtual stand to determine the dynamic loads in contact with obstacles of the soil-throwing drum blades based on the created solid model. For the process of studying the soil-marking drum when encountering obstacles in the form of logging residues and stony inclusions, an imitation virtual stand was created. The paper presents the results of the analysis of data obtained on the basis of simulation modeling.

Application of MODIS Data-Based Forest Fire Monitoring and Assessment

Forest fires are uncontrollable fires that spread freely within forest land, causing significant harm and damage, and thus its monitoring and assessment are crucial. There is a wide range of applications of MODIS data in forest fires aspect, but they are mainly targeted to solve regional problems. This study addresses MODIS data technology and examples of its application to forest fires in the Heilongjiang, Australia, Fujian Province, and Daxinganling Mountains, confirming its potential for monitoring and assessing forest fires. MODIS images and fire products contribute significantly to the usefulness and accuracy in the dynamic identification monitoring of forest fires and accurate determination of the ignition place due to their high resolution, excellent calibration, and positioning processing. MODIS and its corresponding product datasets can also be used to construct multiple vegetation and associated indicators to acquire vegetation area changes and to analyze the damage caused by forest fires. It is the ideal data source for monitoring and assessing forest fires.

Scorched earth tactics of the “Islamic State” after its loss of territory: intentional burning of farmland in Iraq and Syria

Recent literature shows increasing interest in analyzing causes of what was referred to as “unusual” fires in Iraq and Syria in 2019. Here, we examine the causes of uncontrolled and irregular fires within farmlands in parts of the two countries in 2019–2020 and quantify their extent spatiotemporally using a combination of medium and coarse-resolution satellite imagery, land cover, precipitation, temperature data, and multiple sources of armed violence data. Our analysis reveals the extent of the deliberate arson of farmland in Iraq and Northeast Syria in 2019–2020. In comparison, only a few fires of farmland were observed in 2007–2013 in Iraq, and Al-Hassakeh, Syria, that became a stronghold of the Islamic State (IS) in 2013. In 2014–2017, we find evidence for increased farmland fires in various locations that closely tracked the military withdrawal of IS between 2015/2016 and 2017 when it lost most of its territory. We find that although the burned area in wheat-producing regions of Iraq (Ninewa and Kirkuk) and Syria have recently increased, the increase in the percentage burned area of agricultural lands in Iraq’s Ninewa and Kirkuk was not unprecedented. MODIS overestimates burned areas when in low fire activity while it underestimates it when fire activity is high, compared to a Landsat–Sentinel-2 combination. A significant positive relationship (r = 0.83) exists between the number of IS-related incidents and the percent burned agricultural area during 2019, which raises questions about the future strategy of the IS terror group and its use and targeting of the water-food complex.

Multi-stakeholder analysis of fire risk reduction in a densely populated area in the Netherlands: a case-study in the Veluwe area

Reducing the climate change-induced risk of uncontrollable fires in landscapes under nature management, with severe impacts on landscape and society, is particularly urgent in densely-populated and fragmented areas. Reducing fire risk in such areas requires active involvement of a wide diversity of stakeholders. This research letter investigates stakeholders’ needs with regard to fire risk reduction in the Veluwe area in the Netherlands. This densely populated landscape is a popular tourist attraction, and it is one of the most fire-prone landscapes of the Netherlands, with abundant fuels and human ignition sources. We draw upon seven in-depth qualitative interviews with key stakeholders in the Veluwe area, which we situate in a wider review of existing literature. Our analysis demonstrates that the rising incidence of uncontrollable fires poses four types of new challenges to these stakeholders in the Veluwe area. First, stakeholders express the need to reshape existing policy tools and develop novel ones that create synergies between existing policy-priorities (e.g. biodiversity conservation) and fire risk reduction. Second, stakeholders argue for a critical rethinking of the value of landscapes in society, and the diverse roles that fire may play in landscape management research and practice. Third, developing such policy tools requires new modalities and platforms for multi-stakeholder and multi-level collaboration, which are currently lacking because the current and expected future risk of uncontrollable fire is unprecedented. And fourth, the development of effective policy tools requires new knowledge that is interdisciplinary, sensitive towards the local social and ecological characteristics of the area, and which approaches current fire risk challenges and their possible solutions dynamically. While our stakeholder analysis is specific to the Veluwe area in the Netherlands, our findings are also likely to be relevant to other fire-prone nature areas in fragmented landscapes, particularly in Northwestern Europe.

How Environmental Factors Affect Forest Fire Occurrence in Yunnan Forest Region

Forest fire is an ecosystem regulating factor and affects the stability, renewal, and succession of forest ecosystems. However, uncontrolled forest fires can be harmful to the forest ecosystem and to the public at large. Although Yunnan, China is regarded as a global hotspot for forest fires, a general lack of understanding prevails there regarding the mechanisms and interactions that cause forest fires. A logistic regression model based on fire points in Yunnan detected by satellite in 2005–2019 was used to estimate how environmental factors in local areas affect forest fire events. The results show that meteorology is the dominant cause of the frequent forest fires in the area. Other factors of secondary importance are the daily minimum relative humidity and the daily maximum temperature. When using the logistic regression model based on the data of fire points in Yunnan over the period 2005–2019, the key threshold for the daily minimum relative humidity is 28.07% ± 11.85% and the daily maximum temperature is 21.23 ± 11.15 °C for a forest fire probability of 50%. In annual and monthly dynamic trends, the daily minimum relative humidity also plays a dominant role in which combustible substance load remains relatively stable from January to March, and the impact on forest fire becomes greater in April, May, and June, which plays a secondary role compared with the interannual climate. The maximum daily temperature ranks third in importance for forest fires. At the county level, minimum relative humidity and maximum temperature are the top two factors influencing forest fires, respectively. Meanwhile, the differences in forest fire points between counties correspond to the pathways of the two monsoons. This study applies quantitative expressions to reveal the important environmental factors and mechanisms that cause forest fires. The results provide a reference for monitoring and predicting forest fires.

Remuneration and Organizational Responsiveness of Anambra State Fire Service

The increased nature of uncontrolled fire disasters in Nigerian is an issue that calls for urgent attention on the responsiveness of the Nigerian fire service. With a focus on Anambra State – where fire disaster cases were recorded the most in the last decade in Nigeria – this research examined the correlation between employee remuneration and the poor responsiveness of the Anambra state fire service. Using the frequency percentage distribution table, data were presented and analyzed, while the hypotheses were tested using the mean method. The result shows that poor remuneration among other crucial factors is a causative of the poor responsiveness of the fire service and implicitly, increased uncontrolled fire disaster cases. Based on the findings, increased salaries and allowances of firefighters, creation and positioning of more fire stations, etc. was recommended to tackle the malaise and reduce uncontrolled fire disaster cases in the country.

Study on Thermodynamic Characteristics and Heat Transfer Method of Uncontrolled Fire in Coal Mine Gangue Mountain Spontaneous Combustion Based on System Dynamics.

Coal fire disaster caused by the spontaneous combustion of coal has always been one of the serious problems that threaten the safety of coal mining. In our study, we first solved the dynamic parameters and mechanical functions of coal gangue using the Achar differential method and Coats-Redfern integral method. Then, based on the flow and heat transfer mechanism of hot rod vapor-liquid two-phase flow, combined with coal spontaneous ignition conditions, influencing factors, coal pile spontaneous combustion temperature field structure distribution, etc., the heat transfer process of the hot rod in the coal pile (coal gangue mountain) was analyzed. Results show the average activation energies of the second stage of different types of coal mine gangue. Upon comparing the characteristic parameters of coal gangue in different regions and ages, it is found that 8# coal gangue has better combustion and burn-out characteristics, and its comprehensive combustion characteristics are second only to those of the coal gangue in Datong and higher than those in Panzhihua, Pingdingshan, and Hancheng. The higher the content of volatile matter and fixed carbon in coal gangue, the lower the ash content, and the better the comprehensive combustion performance of the coal gangue. Under the condition of sufficient oxygen supply combustion, the larger the fuel ratio, the better the burnout performance of the coal gangue. The test of the influence of the hot rod on the temperature field distribution inside the coal pile shows that the maximum cooling rate of a single hot rod to the coal pile during the test period is 33.4°C, and the maximum cooling rate reaches 39.6%. The calculated heat dissipation of the 80 h hot rod is 1.0865, 2.1680, and 3.3649 MJ, respectively.

Insight into the low-temperature oxidation behavior of coal undergone heating treatment in N2

Heat treatment of coal under nitrogen is an effective technology to reduce water content and upgrade lignite, but the subsequent oxidation behavior and spontaneous combustion characteristic of dried coal are unclear, possibly posing a threat to lignite transportation and storage. In this study, raw coal and dried coal at different temperatures were selected and oxidation parameters were first analyzed by temperature-programmed experiment. The carbon oxides emissions and oxygen consumption of dried coals are obviously higher than that of raw coal, and increase with rising dehydration temperature, indicating coal after drying is more prone to oxidation and spontaneous combustion. Then, the physical structure, chemical groups and free radicals of coal were determined by nitrogen adsorption, FTIR and ESR technology. During drying process, gas release and water evaporation increase pore diameter and pore volume of coal, thus improving O2 transport capacity and oxidation rate. The hydroxyl content in coal decreases, but the CO content increases due to the polycondensation and dehydration reaction of hydroxyl groups after high-temperature drying. Meanwhile, carbonyl compounds and carboxyl groups undergo thermal decomposition and generate free radical active sites on the coal surface. The subsequent oxidation of accumulated free radicals not just release large amounts of carbon oxides, but also contribute to the formation of oxygen-containing groups inside coal with the rise of temperature, accelerating coal-oxygen reaction. Therefore, it is proposed that heat treatment expands physical channels, increases the content of CO groups, and enhances the content of active sites, which leads to vigorous oxidation of dried coal and even uncontrolled coal fires.

Wildlife Monitoring and Anti-Smuggling System for Trees in Forest with Deforestation, Fire and Smoke Detection with Fire Suppression System

Remote sensing has presented a systematic, replicable, and geographically comprehensive picture of the expected large amount of biodiversity. Materials, planning data, policies, and monitoring the forest sector would be more beneficial for appropriate estimations of forest efficient expenditure. A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire that harms both natural and societal resources. When the fire begins to burn and spreads quickly over the forest, it causes enormous damage. Some of the causes of wildfire include lightning, extremely hot and dry weather, a lack of rain, and human ignorance. This project creates an IOT foundation for a system that detects jungle fires. The fire detection system that has been described allows for the early identification of fire before it spreads across a large region. After the fire is discovered, water starts pumping ferociously. With the use of a GPS module, the institution receives the device's precise position. Included the is an Internet - of - things solution for escaping tree trafficking.

A Radical Safety Measure for Identifying Environmental Changes Using Machine Learning Algorithms

Due to air pollution, pollutants that harm humans and other species, as well as the environment and natural resources, can be detected in the atmosphere. In real-world applications, the following impurities that are caused due to smog, nicotine, bacteria, yeast, biogas, and carbon dioxide occur uninterruptedly and give rise to unavoidable pollutants. Weather, transportation, and the combustion of fossil fuels are all factors that contribute to air pollution. Uncontrolled fire in parts of grasslands and unmanaged construction projects are two factors that contribute to air pollution. The challenge of assessing contaminated air is critical. Machine learning algorithms are used to forecast the surroundings if any pollution level exceeds the corresponding limit. As a result, in the proposed method air pollution levels are predicted using a machine learning technique where a computer-aided procedure is employed in the process of developing technological aspects to estimate harmful element levels with 99.99% accuracy. Some of the models used to enhance forecasts are Mean Square Error (MSE), Coefficient of Determination Error (CDE), and R Square Error (RSE).

Experimental study on trajectory flame length and axial temperature distribution of inclined turbulent jet flames

Uncontrollable jet fires are a typical disaster caused in process industries involving hazardous materials. Jet fires are also great safety hazards in the process of pipeline transportation. With the development of pipeline transportation, pipe network leakage events often do not occur in simple scenarios, but in more complex situations, such as in inclined jet fires. There are few studies on the physical characteristics of inclined jet flames in specific environments, which is of great significance for safety protection. In this work, experiments on turbulent diffusion jet flames in different inclined states (−90°to 90°) with nozzle diameters ranging between 2 and 6 mm were carried out. The jet flame length and temperature distribution of the central axis of the flame were analysed. In the present study, a theoretical model is derived to incorporate the effect of the jet inclined angle on the flame length. The experimental results show that both the flame length and the temperature of the central axis of the flame decrease with a decrease of the angle. Finally, the correction angle is introduced into the classical model, and a new dimensionless correlation is established, which is in good agreement with the current and other authors’ experimental results.

Coordinated routing system for fire detection by patrolling trucks with drones

Vehicle routing problem with drones (VRPD) is an extension of classical vehicle routing, which involves the usage of trucks and drones. Nowadays, bushfires are taken into account as a major global challenging subject. Indeed, forests are very vulnerable to fires, and the classical patrol systems cannot patrol all areas of the forest and pastures due to the difficult crossing of some routes.The literature survey demonstrated that the mathematical models are an efficient approach for planning forest and rangeland patrols. Drones and trucks are used in cooperation for forest monitoring in this study, with drones acting as an efficient and accurate means of monitoring routes that are impassable to ground vehicles. However, this novel approach deals with several substantial challenges, including limitation in the drone's battery and the routing problem in an integrated truck-drone system based on considering hard-to-reach areas and creating a trade-off between time and cost of the patrol process. These issues make significant differences between the proposed novel approach and the classical vehicle routing problem. Thus, it is essential to develop a comprehensive approach to resolve these crucial issues. The present study develops a multi-objective mathematical programming model as mixed-integer programming for simultaneous patrolling of trucks and drones. The augmented epsilon constraint (AEC) method has been considered to solve the two-objective mathematical programming model. Besides, Benders' decomposition (BD) algorithm has been employed to evaluate the achieved results in large-size problems. The performance of the BD algorithm has been confirmed in this study. The findings indicated that the proposed model efficiently protected the forest via monitoring all areas, including impassable areas where ground patrolling is impossible (e.g., the lack of roads due to dense vegetation). Also, it was proved that this system was a novel, cost-effective patrol, which prevents uncontrollable fires in the shortest possible time.

Review: Fire in Paradise: An American Tragedy, by Alastair Gee and Dani Anguiano

Review: Fire in Paradise: An American Tragedy, by Alastair Gee and Dani Anguiano

Formation of ANFO Analogues under Fire Conditions in the Presence of Common Plastics

This article is a continuation of a case study in which we presented the results of research on processes generated under fire conditions by mixing molten ammonium nitrate (AN) with selected polymers. Here, we present an analysis of how certain materials, which may frequently appear in farm buildings and are commonly used in the immediate vicinity of humans, can potentially form explosives. The chosen materials include polyamides (PA) from which the wear-resistant machine elements are made (e.g., high-performance gears, wheels of transport trolleys); polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used, i.e., in construction carpentry, electrical insulation, and hydraulic pipes; polystyrene (PS) used, i.e., in insulation and containers; and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), i.e., so-called organic glass and plexiglass. The research results showed that these seemingly harmless and safe materials, mixed with AN and heated under fire conditions, may turn into explosives and stimulate stored AN. This creates significant risks of an uncontrolled fire progress.

Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Pyuthan district

Objectives: Wild edible plants (WEPs) are those plants that are not domesticated and often neglected but have nutritional and medicinal value and can be used as a good source of diet. The study discusses and depicts the availability of WEPs, their taxonomical categories, species richness, distribution, preference, and their threat in the Gaumukhi area. Methodology: Data were collected from 60 randomly selected WEP consumers of Puja and Khung village using a semi-structured interview schedule. The study showed that 37 different species of wild plants are frequently used by respondents. It was found that the majority of the WEPs used were trees followed by herbs and shrubs. Results: Regarding the plant parts used, most of the respondents (54%) use WEPs in the form of vegetables followed by raw fruits (28%) users. The study revealed that the majority of WEP's consumers (39%) were from other caste categories such as Giri, Puri, and Malla followed by Dalits (36%). Research indicated that most of the WEPs were collected from the forest area having an altitude of (1300–1500) masl. The major threat to WEPs was fuel wood collection followed by uncontrolled fire. Conclusions: Study preference of WEPs among the respondents showed that Polystichum squarrosum (Daude) was the highly preferred one followed by Diplazium esculentum (Neuro) and Dendrocalamus hamiltoni (Tama).

Rangeland Degradation and Rehabilitation: Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and Perceptions of Pastoralists in the Adamawa High Plateau of Cameroon

Pastoralists’ perceptions and indigenous ecological knowledge of vegetation changes are often ignored despite the debate about their role in rangeland management. Yet, pastoralists are known to have extensive ecological knowledge which could complement scientific knowledge and contribute to improved understanding and sustainable management of savanna Ecosystems. This study was aimed at exploring pastoralists’ perceptions regarding rangeland degradation in the Adamawa highland plateau. More specifically, it was geared to examine their awareness of rangeland degradation, the current status/condition of the rangelands, the drivers and major root causes of degradation, negative consequences, existing management practices, and a methodological framework to make these measures more resilient. The study applied a descriptive statistics method. Focus group discussions, field observations and structured/semi-structured survey questionnaires, were used for data collection, where 240 pastoralists were targeted. The study covered 4 sub-divisions within Faro & Deo District of the plateau based on the intensity of degradation (high, medium and less). The major findings indicate that, the main livelihood activity is cattle rearing and crop cultivation (86.43%) with a certain degree of sedentarization. The major livestock production constraint proved to be insufficient and poor pasture available for cattle (65.71%). A great majority (93.6%) also confirmed that the present rangeland state/condition has become poor and non-conducive for cattle production. This is clearly interpreted in the drastic drop of the ‘cheptel’ (average holdings) and a decline in the quality of pastoral resources/outputs offered to the communities. The major root causes of degradation were overgrazing, bush encroachment, uncontrolled bush fires, soil erosion, population pressure and limited care/attention paid to rangelands. The major socio-economic consequences were poverty, food insecurity, conflicts, loss of cultural heritage, rural exodus and high crime waves. Through their indigenous ecological knowledge pastoralists conserve their rangelands through: mechanical and chemical fight against bush encroachment (Bush clearing and use of selective herbicide respectively), seasonal herd mobility/transhumance, use of paddocking systems, destocking of herds, adoption of improved pastures, and improvement on pastoral hydraulics. Government and NGOs’ supports to rangeland management, proved to be limited in the study area. The degradation of rangelands in the study area is progressing at an alarming rate which gives the impression of difficulty to restore it in the future if proper measures are not taken by stakeholders.

Analysis of the use of transformable elements in intelligent tunnel ventilation systems

All main and auxiliary equipment in the tunnel with an intelligent ventilation system are designed to ensure the safety. These systems “talk” and “listen” to each other, make decisions to switch on/off certain system(s) or part(s) thereof and duly inform the tunnel operator, who is authorized to the centralized control of all systems of necessity. The present article uses the numerical models to assess the efficiency of the transformable elements ensuring safe operation of the tunnels. The idea of their use is based on an artificial increase of the tunnel aerodynamic resistance by means of a flexible element, which will hamper the dissemination of combustion products, but not the movement of people through the tunnel and will help isolate clean and polluted air masses. Such resistance will be used to swiftly divide the tunnel carriageway into smaller sections what will help extinguish the fire as early as at its initial stage, prolong the evacuation time and save lives during the strong uncontrollable fires. As for the compact transformable element, it can be used in both, the operating and the planned tunnels, as it in practice does not reduce the volume of valuable underground space.

Business model for community featured products in peatlands: case study of Pulang Pisau Regency

Peatlands are one of resources for regional economic development in Pulang Pisau Regency. However, the condition of peatlands continues to be degraded due to uncontrolled use and fires on peatlands and forests areas. The socio-economic revitalization of community is one of the efforts to restore the degraded peatlands. This revitalization is required as the utilization of peatland by the community is still traditional, so the added value of land use products, until now has not been created optimally. Therefore, a land-use business approach that is appropriate with the capacity of the community and available natural capital is needed. This approach will improve community livelihoods and contribute positively to economic, social, and environmental development. This paper aims to identify the features of paludiculture products cultivated by the community and develop a featured product business model. Research locations are in Buntoi and Mantaren 1 Village. Data collection is carried out through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Respondents are farmers, traders, industry players, and the government. The data analysis used is descriptive data analysis and canvas business model (CBM). The dominant type of plant cultivated by the community is rubber. The community considers rubber could provide high economic benefits. Analysis results of rubber business practices carried out by the community are characterized by (i) low dry content of rubber latex (slab); (ii) rubber latex that is sold to a local trader or factories at lower prices than it is sold to the factory, (iii) the certainty of the slab supply to the factory is relatively high; and (iv) limited control of capital and technology. The development of the CBM model is needed to improve the rubber business through improving the quality of latex as a market segmentation requirement, expanding potential customers through collective marketing channels, improving productivity by selecting superior seeds and environmental engineering technology.

An experimental investigation into the wildland fire burning characteristics of loblolly pine needles

Wildland fires present a threat to both the environment and to homes and businesses in the wildland urban interface. Understanding the behavior of wildland fires is crucial for developing informed risk management techniques, such as prescribed burning, to prevent uncontrolled fires, which devastate communities globally. In this work, an optically accessible facility was developed combining traditional and optical diagnostic techniques to study the combustion of wildland fuels. This facility was then used to study the burning characteristics of loblolly pine needles (Pinus taeda). Mass loss rate, flame temperature, propagation rate, flame geometry, and OH* chemiluminescent flame intensity were measured for fuel loadings of 0.98, 1.31, and 1.63 kg/m2. Mass loss rate increased linearly with fuel loading. The flame propagation rate increased slightly with fuel loading while approaching an asymptotic value. The flame height and surface area increased more significantly with fuel loading, but also approached asymptotic values. Flame depth increased slightly with fuel loading, and throughout the duration of the test. The flame intensity and flame temperature did not change significantly with fuel loading.