Uncontrolled Fires Research Articles

Characterization of pyrolysis products from fast pyrolysis of live and dead vegetation native to the Southern United States

Prescribed burning (controlled burning) is used to decrease accumulation of combustible materials and reduce impact of uncontrolled wildland fires. Prescribed fires are often used to burn undergrowth in Southern forests of the United States. In order to improve prescribed fire application, accomplish desired fire effects, and limit potential runaway fires, an improved understanding of the fundamental processes related to combustion of heterogeneous fuel beds of live and dead fuels is needed. The initial processes of combustion involve pyrolysis and ignition. During this research, fast pyrolysis of 14 live and dead (biomass) plant species which are native to the Southern United States have been studied using a flat-flame burner (FFB) apparatus. The FFB apparatus enables experiments at a high heating rate (∼100 °C s−1, or ∼100 kW m−2) and moderate temperature (∼765 °C) to imitate pyrolysis during typical fire spread conditions. Pyrolysis products have been analyzed in detail using a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) for analysis of tars, and a gas chromatograph equipped with a thermal conductivity detector (GC-TCD) for analysis of permanent (light or non-condensable) gases. Differences between yields of light gas species were small between plant species. Composition of tars included aromatic compounds with 1–5 rings with very few attachments. The pyrolysis products observed at this temperature and heating rate appear to have experienced secondary pyrolysis. The tar composition showed some large changes with plant species. Comparison of products from pyrolysis of live vegetation and dead vegetation of the same plant species showed differences in tar, gas, and char yields, but no major changes in the types of chemical compounds observed.

An Adaptive Large Neighbourhood Search for asset protection during escaped wildfires

The asset protection problem is encountered where an uncontrollable fire is sweeping across a landscape comprising important infrastructure assets. Protective activities by teams of firefighters can reduce the risk of losing a particular asset. These activities must be performed during a time-window for each asset determined by the progression of the fire. The nature of some assets is such that they require the simultaneous presence of more than one fire vehicle and its capabilities must meet the requirements of each asset visited. The objective is then to maximise the value of the assets protected subject to constraints on the number and type of fire trucks available. The solution times to this problem using commercial solvers preclude their use for operational purposes. In this work we develop an Adaptive Large Neighbourhood Search algorithm (ALNS) based on problem-specific attributes. Several removal and insertion heuristics, including some new algorithms, are applied. A new benchmark set is generated by considering the problem attributes. In tests with small instances the ALNS is shown to achieve optimal, or near optimal, results in a fraction of the time required by CPLEX. In a second set of experiments comprising larger instances the ALNS was able to produce solutions in times suitable for operational purposes. These solutions mean that significantly more assets can be protected than would be the case otherwise.

Dynamics of Human Pressures on the Mont Péko National Park (West-Côte d'Ivoire)

The Mont Péko national Park (MPNP) located to the West of Côte d'Ivoire underwent severe human pressure related to a succession of political and military crises from 2002 to 2011. Since 2013, the Ivoirians government is engaged in a process of rehabilitation of this park. This study aimed to evaluate the dynamics of human pressures from 1996 to 2018, in order to allow the manager of the park to better focus their awareness and protection activities. To achieve this, the RAPPAM method of WWF international was adopted for the collection of data. The study identified 10 types of pressures of which farm is the most severe followed by pressure on land, logging, bush fires, the establishment of settlements, poaching and pollution. The intensity of pressures on the MPNP doesn’t significantly vary depending on the areas, but this varies according to the socio-political gradient in time. The pressures have evolved gradually from 2002 to 2011 before beginning to decline progressively until 2018. Currently, except for uncontrolled bush fires, all pressures declined significantly, or even disappear for some. The existence of a variety of pressures on the MPNP to disturbing proportions is therefore related in part to the lack of monitoring during the crises. The anthropization of the MPNP found the springs of its acceleration in the existence of an armed gang who have organized, systematic exploitation of the resources.

Impacts of anthropogenic pressures on wildlife in the northern sector of the National Park of Mbam and Djerem, Adamaou Cameroon

The study on the assessment of the scale of human pressure on wildlife in the Mbam and Djerem National Park was conducted between December 2012 and April 2013. This evaluation has relied on a review of seven reports ecological monitoring produced by Wildlife Conservation Society between 2006 and 2012, and direct observations. Results show that: the main causes of the reduction of wildlife are poaching (60.5%), transhumance (16.5%), illegal fishing (10.9%) and uncontrolled bush fires (1.5%). In terms of relative abundance of human activities, it was found that the number of human indexes droped from 232 in 2006 to 109 in 2009 and 109 to 82 in 2012 as well as wildlife or encounter rate per kilometer species activity signs indicated a high relative abundance of elephants has increased from 1,008 in 2006 to 2.18 in 2009 and 2.18 to 5.80 in 2012 followed by buffalo and hocheur general, activities anthropogenic influences negatively but very weak wildlife (r = -0.06). This influence is positive and is higher among Loxodonta africana (r = 0.9), Pan troglodytes (r = 0.6), Greater spot-nosed monkey (r = 0.4), low in Syncerus caffer (r = 0.1) and Red river hog (r = 0.05) between 2006 and 2012, a reduction of human activities 64.7% was observed. To reduce the impact of human activities on wildlife, it is desirable to strengthen the monitoring of livestock in the park and the fight against poaching device. Key words: Human activities, Wildlife, Mbam and Djerem National Park, ecological monitoring.

Experimental comparisons in façade fire testing considering SP Fire 105 and the BS 8414‐1

SummaryA comparison between full‐scale façade fire tests where SP Fire 105 and BS 8414‐1 were used regarding repeatability and the use of modeling to discern changes in the setups is presented. Two test series according to BS 8414‐1 were repeated outside using the same façade systems on 2 different days, whereas for the SP Fire 105 a set of common façade systems in Sweden were tested indoors. In particular, the results show that the wind around the test setup may have a significant impact on the tests and that the heat exposure to the façade surface will depend on the thickness of the test specimen where an increased temperature in front of the façade, and a decreased temperature on the façade 2.1 m above the fire room, is observed experimentally. The heat exposure to the test specimen varies to a more limited extent when an uncontrollable free burning fire source is used (in this study heptane and wood, respectively) and that this variation increases when wind is present.

Coal Fires a major Source of Greenhouse Gases- a forgotten problem.

Coal fires seriously pollute the environment in several states of the world. Today most coal fires are manmade and emerge from illegal or unprofessional mining activities. The most disastrous coal fires of the world currently occur in China and India. In China the program "Great Leap Forward" in the beginning of the 60ties together with inefficient small scale mining are the main reasons of the 750 coal fires in China, where almost 200 Mt of excellent, near surface coal were burned in uncontrolled coal fires. In India disregard of standards with regards to coal fire prevention is the reason of the burning coal fields. The Jharia Coalfield in Jharkhand started burning in 1916 and burns this year for 100 years. General data on the volume of coal, which burns in Indian coal mines are not available. In general, coal fires start as result of unprofessional or illegal mining activities in open pits and uncontrolled, inactive coal mines by self-combustion of coal. Self-combustion is mainly controlled by the grain size of the coals, in other words the smaller the grain size the higher the risk of oxidation and subsequent temperature build-up. Many coal fires burn underground with variable supply of oxygen. Hence, the coal does not burn completely like in power plants, but it smolders in the underground. Emissions from these smoldering fires and an incomplete combustion of the coal create dust and greenhouse gases such as NOX, CO2, CO2 equi., CO and CH4. These emissions pollute the soil, groundwater and the atmosphere. Coal fire experts discuss since years the percentage and the cumulative influence of coal fires on global warming and climate change. Until now the percentage of greenhouse gases resulting from coal fires is unknown. The quantification of this percentage is a future duty of firefighting companies and organizations.

Fire Safety Analysis of Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel Based on Fault Tree and Triangle Fuzzy Theory

Abstract In order to realistic study of fire accidents in tunnel, according to the uncertainty and fuzziness of accident, the model of fault tree is established for Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel after Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge closed, and with the triangular fuzzy theory, the estimate of base event is obtained by scoring of the relevant professional, and the probable range of top event is calculated. In addition, the fuzzy importance is obtained by the median method of triangular fuzzy theory, to find the fuzzy importance of basic event. Then the fire prevention measures are proposed for Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel. The results show that the possibility of uncontrolled fire is small in Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel. Among them, fire rescue no arriving in time, no knowledge of fire extinguishing, vehicle collision on fire and auto-alarm failure are main factors leading to catastrophic fire. Thus, it is of great significance to strengthen the fire-fighting knowledge of personnel and the capacity of automatic fire-fighting for the tunnel itself, to reduce the occurrence of fire in tunnel.

Characterization of organic aromatic compounds in soils affected by an uncontrolled tire landfill fire through the use of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Discarded vehicle tires have become an increasing concern worldwide due to the enormous amount of wastes generated and the increasing evidence of health problems associated to their disposal and accidental combustion. Previous studies conducted involving either simulated or open uncontrolled tire fires have identified aromatics belonging to two main classes, volatile organic compounds and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs), as the most relevant chemicals generated in these burning processes. As a consequence, and due to their recognized toxicity, most studies reported up to now have mainly focused on these two categories of compounds being information concerning the possible occurrence of other aromatic classes rather limited.In this study, the enhanced separation power and structural confirmation capabilities provided by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC–ToF MS) has been used, for the first time, for the non-targeted analysis of soils impacted by a tire fire and an ash collected at the scene of the fire. In total, 118 volatile and semi-volatile aromatic compounds have been differentiated. Among them, 104 compounds have been either positively or tentatively identified. PAHs with 3–5 rings and their alkyl-derivatives were the most numerous and relevant classes in the investigated samples. A significant number of sulfur, oxygen- and nitrogen-containing PAHs were also detected in the samples. The application of a script function to the raw GC×GC–ToF MS data allowed the fast filtering and automatic recognition of compounds containing halogens in their structure. This part of the study evidenced that only a limited number of regulated persistent organic pollutants were present in the investigated samples. However, it also revealed the presence of emerging organophosphorous flame retardants, whose levels in tire fire impacted soils are reported for the first time.

A conservation framework for the Critically Endangered endemic species of the Caribbean palmCoccothrinax

AbstractWith 30 threatened species (14 categorized as Critically Endangered and 16 as Endangered, sensu IUCN),Coccothrinax(c. 54 species) is the flagship palm genus for conservation in the Caribbean Island Biodiversity Hotspot.Coccothrinaxhas its centre of taxonomic diversity in these islands, with c. 51 endemic species. We present a conservation framework for the 14 Critically Endangered species, found in Cuba, Haiti or the Dominican Republic. Only two species (C. jimenezii,C. montana) occur in more than one country (Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Immediate threats include oil drilling and nickel mining, intrusion of saline water into soil, urban and agricultural development, low population recruitment, uncontrolled fires, interspecific hybridization, and unsustainable ethnobotanical practices.Coccothrinax bermudezii,C. borhidiana,C. crinitassp.crinita,C. leonisandC. spissaare not conserved in protected areas.Coccothrinax bermudezii,C. jimenezii,C. leonisandC. nipensisare not part of ex situ collections. Based on results from a conservation project targetingC. jimenezii, we recommend international cooperation between the three range states to implement integrative conservation management plans, plant exploration initiatives, taxonomic revisions, outreach, and fundraising. The ultimate aim of this review is to provide baseline information that will develop conservation synergy among relevant parties working onCoccothrinaxconservation in Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Such collaborations could also benefit through partnerships with botanists working in other countries.

The ammonium nitrate explosion at West, Texas: A disaster that could have been avoided

AbstractOn April 17, 2013, an explosion of ammonium nitrate (AN) fertilizer stored at the West Fertilizer Company resulted in 15 deaths, 260 injuries, and the destruction of a sizable portion of the town. AN fertilizer is classified as an oxidizer, not as an explosive; nonetheless, it is a chemical which can detonate, and there is a century's worth of history of such explosions, some of them in manufacturing operations, but many in storage or transport. A review of incidents showed that 100% of AN fertilizer explosions in storage or transport had a single cause—an uncontrolled fire. Thus, AN fertilizer explosions in storage are preventable accidents, because technology to preclude uncontrollable fires also has been available for a century. In the case of transport accidents, uncontrolled fires may not be avoidable. However, technologies exist that can make AN less likely to explode, and to show greatly reduced explosion intensity, if driven to explosion. None of these safety measures were in place for this disaster. Details of necessary fire safety measures and the effectiveness and utility of existing regulations for AN are examined. This is important because most AN storage facilities in the United States are similarly inadequate in their fire safety.

The West, Texas, ammonium nitrate explosion: A failure of regulation

On 17 April 2013, the West Fertilizer Company’s ammonium nitrate storage building exploded, killing 15 persons and injuring over 200. Numerous Federal and State agencies regulated the facility. But none of the agencies demonstrated a viable understanding of what is liable to cause accidental ammonium nitrate explosions, nor what is needed to prevent these. Specifically, none of them recognized the fact that ammonium nitrate fertilizer explosion accidents, when they occur, are inevitably the consequence of an uncontrolled fire and that such fires can be precluded by well-known fire safety measures. In fact, existing regulations have generally focused on everything but features needed to make such storage facilities incapable of sustaining an uncontrolled fire. Ammonium nitrate manufacturers, however, did have technical knowledge concerning safety and were aware of the ineffectiveness of governmental regulations. Espousing proper Product Stewardship principles by the manufacturers would have precluded selling dangerous chemicals to buyers who cannot safely store them.

Perceptions across scales of governance and the Indonesian peatland fires

Across leading environmental challenges—fire management, climate change, deforestation – there is growing awareness of the need to better account for diverse stakeholder perceptions across complex, multi-level governance arrangements. Perceptions often condition behavior, compliance and engagement in ways that impact environmental outcomes. We illustrate the importance of, and approaches to, examining perceptions across scales of governance (e.g. international, national, local) and sectors (e.g. civil society, government, corporate) through the example of Indonesian peatland fires. Peatlands are crucial global carbon stocks threatened by land use change and fire and subject to a range of policy interventions that affect many different stakeholder groups. Peatland drainage and conversion to plantation agriculture has been associated with severe, uncontrolled peat fires that present significant climate, public health and economic risks. Peatland fire management has become a domestic and international priority, spurring intensely contentious debates, policies and legal proceedings. Previous fire management interventions (FMI) are numerous yet have suffered widespread implementation failures. Against this backdrop, our manuscript provides a thematically and methodologically novel analysis of how diverse stakeholders, from local farmers to international policy makers, perceive peatland fires in terms of, i) how they prioritize the associated benefits and burdens, and ii) the perceived effectiveness of FMI. We adopt an innovative application of Q method to provide needed insights that serve to quantify the areas of contention and consensus that exist among the stakeholders and their multi-dimensional perspectives. We show that many of the contemporary FMI were perceived as among the most effective interventions overall, but were also the most controversial between groups. Clear consensus areas were related to the shared concerns for the local health impacts and the potential of government support for fire-free alternatives as a solution pathway. Improved understanding of stakeholder perceptions has potential to: give voice to marginalized communities; enable transparent mediation of diverse priorities; inform public education campaigns, and shape future policy and governance arrangements.

Sixteen years changes in tree density and aboveground biomass of a logged and burned dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Toma T, Warsudi, Osone Y, Sutedjo, Sato T, Sukartiningsih. 2017. Sixteen years changes in tree density and aboveground biomass of a logged and burned dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 18: 1159-1167. Changes in tree density and aboveground biomass (AGB) of a logged and burned lowland dipterocarp forest were monitored in Bukit Soeharto Research and Education Forest (BSREF) of Mulawarman University, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. A 9-ha plot was established in 1997 to investigate the effect of second felling and the subsequent recovery. Experimental felling was conducted in October 1997, and the plot was burned by uncontrolled fires between February and April 1998. Stem diameter of living trees (diameter at breast height ≥ 10 cm) in the plot was recorded annually. Allometric functions and the annual tree inventory were used to estimate changes in AGB. Tree density in the 9-ha plot was 429 trees ha−1 before the experimental felling.This decreased to 76 trees ha−1 in 2000 because of the felling and fires. Tree density increased to 515 trees ha−1 until 2008 and then decreased to 408 trees ha−1 in 2014. AGB of the 9-ha plot was 279 Mg ha−1 in 1997,which decreased to 96 Mg ha−1 in 2000 and then increased to 139 Mg ha−1 in 2014. After 16 years of the 1998 fires, in 2014, BSREF consists of a mosaic of forest stands that are dominated by either large late successional tree species or small pioneer trees. The former stands consisted of numerous late successional tree species that survived the felling and fires. The latter stands were dominated by a few pioneer species. In 2016, 16 years after the fire, these pioneer dominating stands are now undergoing a transitional stage from pioneer to late successional trees that grow longer and larger than the pioneer trees. Logged and burned forest stands may recover their AGB comparable to that of the original forest (≥400 Mg ha−1), if these stands are saved from further logging and fires in the longterm.

Remobilisation of industrial lead depositions in ash during Australian wildfires

This study examined the recycling of lead (Pb) in ash from wildfires, its source and potential contribution to environmental contamination. Ash from wildfires was collected from four Australian sites following uncontrolled fires during 2012 to 2013 close to major urban populations in Sydney (New South Wales), Hobart (Tasmania) and Adelaide (South Australia). The samples were analysed for their total Pb concentration and Pb isotopic composition to determine the sources of Pb and the extent, if any, of industrial contamination and its recycling into the ecosystem. Median ash concentrations (23mg/kg) released from a wildfire close to Australia's largest city, Sydney, exceeded the median ash Pb concentrations from wildfires from the less populated locations of Hobart, Adelaide and NSW Central Coast. Lead isotopic compositions of Duffys Forest wildfire ash demonstrate that anthropogenic inputs from legacy leaded petrol depositions were the predominant source of contamination. Despite the cessation of leaded petrol use in Australia in 2002, historic petrol Pb deposits continue to be a substantial source of contamination in ash: petrol Pb contributed 35% of the Pb in the Woy Woy ash, 73% in Duffys Forest ash, 39% in Forcett ash and 5% in Cherryville ash. The remobilisation of legacy industrial Pb depositions by wildfires in ash results in it being a persistent and problematic contaminant in contemporary environmental systems because of its known toxicity.

Outdoor and indoor particle characterization from a large and uncontrolled combustion of a tire landfill

A large and uncontrolled fire of a tire landfill started in Seseña (Toledo, Spain) on May 13, 2016. An experimental deployment was immediately launched in the area for measuring regulated and non-standard air quality parameters to assess the potential impact of the plume at local and regional levels. Outdoor and indoor measurements of different parameters were carried out at a near school, approximately 700m downwind the burning tires. Real time measurements of ambient black carbon (BC) and total number particle concentrations were identified as good tracers of the smoke plume. Simultaneous peaks allowed us to characterize situations of the plume impact on the site. Outdoor total particle number concentrations reached in these occasions 3.8×105particlescm−3 (on a 10min resolution) whereas the indoor concentration was one order of magnitude lower. BC mass concentrations in ambient air were in the range of 2 to 7μgm−3, whereas concentrations<2μgm−3 were measured indoor. Indoor and outdoor deposited inhalable dust was sampled and chemically characterized. Both indoor and outdoor dust was enriched in tire components (Zn, sulfate) and PAHs associated to the tire combustion process. Infiltration processes have been documented for BC and particle number concentrations causing increases in indoor concentrations.

Review and analysis of the explosion accident in Drevja, Norway: A consequence of fire in a mobile explosives manufacturing unit (MEMU) carrying precursors for the on-site production of bulk explosives

On 17 December 2013, in Drevja, Nordland county, Norway, an uncontrollable fire in a mobile explosives manufactory unit (MEMU) carrying ammonium nitrate-based products and gassing agents for the on-site production of bulk explosives, culminated in an explosion almost 2.5h after the fire was first noticed. Even though explosive events during storage or transport of ammonium nitrate are rare, the consequences are often disastrous and have thus been the cause of some of the largest industry- and transport-related accidents to date. Most of them have involved uncontrollable fires. As part of the governmental investigation of the disaster, the accident area was thoroughly inspected, eye-witnesses were interviewed and pictures taken during the incident were examined. In addition, more than 340 fragments were collected and registered and used for further analyses and assessments. Based on these findings, we present a technical and detailed review of the accident. This includes the use of ballistic calculations in the ensuing analysis of the explosive event, followed by discussions on current regulations and hazard classification tests. These underline both the governmental and industrial need for profound, technical knowledge in the risk profiling of the transport of precursors for the on-site production of ammonium nitrate-based explosives.

AIRUSE-LIFE +: estimation of natural source contributions to urban ambient air PM&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;10&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; and PM&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;2. 5&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; concentrations in southern Europe – implications to compliance with limit values

Abstract. The contribution of natural sources to ambient air particulate matter (PM) concentrations is often not considered; however, it may be significant for certain areas and during specific periods of the year. In the framework of the AIRUSE-LIFE+ project, state-of-the-art methods have been employed for assessing the contribution of major natural sources (African dust, sea salt and forest fires) to PM concentrations, in southern European urban areas. 24 h measurements of PM10 and PM2. 5 mass and chemical composition were performed over the course of a year in five cities: Porto, Barcelona, Milan, Florence and Athens. Net African dust and sea-salt concentrations were calculated based on the methodologies proposed by the EC (SEC 2011/208). The contribution of uncontrolled forest fires was calculated through receptor modelling. Sensitivity analysis with respect to the calculation of African dust was also performed, in order to identify major parameters affecting the estimated net dust concentrations. African dust contribution to PM concentrations was more pronounced in the eastern Mediterranean, with the mean annual relative contribution to PM10 decreasing from 21 % in Athens, to 5 % in Florence, and around 2 % in Milan, Barcelona and Porto. The respective contribution to PM2. 5 was calculated equal to 14 % in Athens and from 1.3 to 2.4 % in all other cities. High seasonal variability of contributions was observed, with dust transport events occurring at different periods in the western and eastern Mediterranean basin. Sea salt was mostly related to the coarse mode and also exhibited significant seasonal variability. Sea-salt concentrations were highest in Porto, with average relative contributions equal to 12.3 % for PM10. Contributions from uncontrolled forest fires were quantified only for Porto and were low on an annual basis (1.4 and 1.9 % to PM10 and PM2. 5, respectively); nevertheless, contributions were greatly increased during events, reaching 20 and 22 % of 24 h PM10 and PM2. 5 concentrations, respectively.

Conservation priorities for the threatened flora of mountaintop grasslands in Brazil

Mountaintop rupestrian grasslands or campos rupestres are unique ecosystems with high plant biodiversity. The southern Espinhaço mountains in Brazil are particularly important because they currently harbor 255 threatened plant species at risk of extinction owing to overspread farming, mining and uncontrolled fire in the region. Using the best available data on the distribution of these threatened species, distribution of farming and mining activities, and up-to-date data on fire frequency, here we developed a systematic conservation plan for all these species and pinpointed priority regions for taking different conservation actions. We found that it is possible to protect, on average, more than 25% of the threatened species ranges, avoiding sites with extensive use for farming and mining and favoring areas with intensive fire frequency while constraining the management to a relatively small area of only 17% of the region. The analysis accounts for what is already protected within protected areas in the region and is, therefore, complementary to the work already held by the actors and environmental organizations of the region. We offer maps of priority areas with their respective level of protection and suggest conservation actions at different levels of engagement to be implemented in the priority areas. These priority areas are part of a national species recovery plan for the region in Brazil and will likely support stakeholders and decision makers in its application in the forthcoming years.

Estimation of Fire Frequency in Nainital District of Utarakhand State by Using Satellite Images

A forest may consist either of closed forest formations where trees of various storeys and undergrowth cover a high proportion of the ground or open forest. Forests take many forms, depending on their latitude, local soil, rainfall and prevailing temperatures. A forest fire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. A Forest fire frequency is an average time interval between successive fires. Fires in forested areas can be regarded as an environmental disaster caused by either natural forces or anthropogenic activities. Nainital district of Uttarakhand state experiences forest fires frequently every year with a peak during the months of April to July. The present study was done for Estimation of forest fire frequency from 2001-2016 of Nainital district of Uttarakhand state. Results were made by using the highest frequency of Nainital district was 9 and is categorized into 4 classes. The No fire areas contain 55% of total geographical area(TGA), Low fire areas contain 25%, Medium fire areas contain 18% and High fire area contains only 2% of TGA.

Pine needle biomass gasification based electricity and cold storage systems for rural Himalayan region: optimal size and site

Pine trees cover large portions of the Himalayan region. Every summer session dry pine needles fall from the trees and cover the forest floor, which is a serious cause of uncontrolled frequent forest fires here in this region. Due to the widespread availability of pine needles (forest biomass) in the Himalayan region, it can not only produce electricity (through gasification) for immediate local consumption and the national grid system but with the implementation of CHP and CHCP technology it can also contribute to local dairies, food processing industries and for cold storage. Using pine needles in electricity generation will not only save the environment, by preventing forest fires, but also contribute to the energy demands of the region and preserve the local vegetable, fruits and milk product without any additional cost. The objective of this study is to find out the optimal gasification system range to serve a particular locality with respect to local pine needle availability and produced refrigeration capacity.