UN Mission Research Articles

Gaining local legitimacy in stabilisation operations: the Spanish peacekeepers case in Lebanon-UNIFIL II

ABSTRACT This article analyses the role of peacekeeping in enhancing a host nation's local legitimacy within its population, focusing on the mission actions from a bottom-up perspective. This research, which used a micro-approach with the Spanish contingent case study in UNIFIL II, involved two field studies carried out between 2010 and 2016 in Lebanon with interviews and focus groups with Spanish military personnel of this UN mission and local Lebanese actors. The results show how the implementation of both material actions – the provision of public goods and security – and non-material actions – respect and an in-depth knowledge about the local context –, performed by Spanish peacekeepers towards local actors, helped to improve the local legitimacy and reconciled the goals of the mission with the interests of Lebanese society and state.

The future of UN peace operations: pragmatism, pluralism or statism?

Abstract Although United Nations peace missions have played an important conflict management role for decades, a backlash against the post-Cold War model of ‘liberal peacebuilding’ and other recent developments have called their future into doubt. Some observers contend that a ‘pragmatic turn’ is now underway—a shift away from ambitious plans to transform war-torn societies into liberal democracies and towards more modest and realistic goals. Whether ‘pragmatism’ offers a viable alternative framework for peacebuilding, however, is less clear. This article challenges key assumptions of the pragmatic approach to peacebuilding, including the notion that UN missions can be ‘agnostic’ about the governance arrangements of societies that host these operations, as some proponents of pragmatism recommend. Historical case-studies show that such assumptions are integral features of collective conflict management systems, including UN peace missions. Moreover, a close examination of the pragmatist approach reveals that it, too, is based on such assumptions—namely, that building peace requires the promotion of pluralist societies and states. Pluralist peacebuilding, the article concludes, could offer a compelling foundation for future UN missions in an era of rising statist–authoritarianism, but developing this approach will first require discarding pragmatism's pretence of ideological agnosticism.

Impact of Remote Work on Work-Life Balance in the Southeastern Asia Union Mission of Seventh-day Adventists

Impact of Remote Work on Work-Life Balance in the Southeastern Asia Union Mission of Seventh-day Adventists

Interpretive Agency, Change, and the Role of Individuals in UN Peace Operations

ABSTRACT Much of what peacekeepers do on a daily basis is best understood through the lens of practice, and practice theorists have begun to explore the process by which practice change occurs in international organizations. Yet practice theory’s focus on tacit knowledge and ‘unthinking’ action raises important questions about agency. How can individual peacekeepers change their daily practices amid the myriad structural factors that dispose them to act in particular ways? Do changes in peacekeeping practice require conscious reflection on their part? Drawing on evidence from UN missions in Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, and the DRC, I argue that changes in practice often occur through interpretive agency as individuals determine what rules require in practice. Interpretive agency takes two distinct forms: practical agency and reflective agency. Reflective agency involves conscious deliberation, while practical agency occurs when peacekeepers make unthinking adjustments to existing practices. This article identifies conditions that are conducive to each type of interpretive agency, highlighting the impact of crisis, bureaucratic hierarchy, and the role of specialized knowledge. These findings improve our understanding of how individual agency shapes UN peace operations, while also contributing to wider debates about change and continuity in global governance.

Learning to Fight Together: UN Peacekeeping Coalitions and Civilian Protection

Abstract Since the end of the Cold War, the United Nations has increasingly used peacekeeping operations (PKOs) to manage crises between and within states. The mandates of contemporary PKOs are demanding, calling on peacekeeping personnel to separate belligerent parties, enforce ceasefire agreements, and protect the physical security of civilians. The pursuit of these distinct objectives presents a unique challenge for the UN because it relies on member states to volunteer personnel for these missions. Therefore, the achievement of mandated goals depends on the ability of diverse national contingents to overcome coordination problems and function as a cohesive force. Integrating research of PKOs and international military coalitions, we argue that as national contingents share operational experience within a UN mission, they develop common institutional practices, and become more effective at protecting the civilian population. Using monthly data on UN PKOs from 1990 to 2019, we find that increasing operational experience within a peacekeeping coalition reduces civilian fatalities significantly.

Gendering Security Sector Reform through Capacity Building? The MINUSMA Specialized Police Team on Crime Scene Management

ABSTRACT This article studies norm translation of the Women, Peace and Security agenda by interrogating the ways in which external support can contribute to gendering the security sector in conflict-affected countries. Through a case study of a Norwegian-led Specialized Police Team which provided capacity building in crime scene management to Malian Security Forces as part of the UN mission in Mali, it analyses how different understandings of gender inform gender mainstreaming practice. The analysis shows that while the Norwegian officers worked actively to promote gender equality and women’s participation, the possibilities for capacity building to contribute to a gendering of the security sector are limited by the lack of more transformative understandings of gender to inform practice.

Navigating the Transition Tightrope: Challenges Posed by African Union Mission in Somalia Transition on Kenya’s National Security

This study examined Kenya's national security threats resulting from the withdrawal of the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) from the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM). This was in light of previous Peace Support Operation Transitions (PSO) in Iraq and Afghanistan, where regional instability resulted from troop withdrawals. Therefore, it analysed the impact of PSO experiences on national security, aiming to identify potential threats to the national security of Troop-Contributing Countries (TCC) resulting from PSO involvement. The study was a descriptive survey design, and it adopted a mixed-methods approach. The sample size for the study was 400 respondents and 49 key informants. The survey was informed by functionalist theory and strategic theory. Kenyan border counties are predisposed to the security effects of the KDF transition from AMISOM. The study's findings indicated a complex security landscape; that is, weak Somali security forces, insufficient funding for the transition, a short time frame, and the likelihood of a resurgent Al-Shabaab all present significant threats to Kenya's national security. These issues are exacerbated by increased border security problems, such as smuggling and unresolved territorial conflicts. However, the studies indicated that Kenya could mitigate these risks. Influencing the Security Transition Plan (STP) to prioritise strong border security measures can strengthen Kenya's defences. Strengthening the Jubaland buffer zone and helping Somalia's disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) initiatives can help weaken terrorist organisations. Furthermore, efforts in Kenya's border counties' socioeconomic development can reduce the attraction to extreme ideas. Implementing comprehensive border security measures provides an additional avenue for improving overall security. According to the analysis, AMISOM's transition represents a complicated security tightrope walk for Kenya. To counteract the problem, Kenya must address the highlighted dangers while capitalising on existing opportunities. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) indicated an F statistic of 139.893 and a p value of 0.000<0.05, implying that the transition of the Kenyan contingent in the African Union mission in Somalia significantly predicts Kenya’s national security. The regression weights model showed that the transition of the Kenyan contingent in the African Union mission in Somalia had a negative and significant influence on Kenya’s national security (β = -0.368, P =.000<.05). Recommendations include actively shaping the STP, strengthening the Jubaland buffer zone, and stationing enough security personnel along the border. Promoting bilateral and multilateral engagement with Somalia is critical for resolving lingering concerns and maintaining regional stability. By taking these steps, Kenya can protect its national security throughout AMISOM's handover.

From imperial power to regional policeman: Ethiopian peacekeeping and the developmental state

Abstract Why and how do African states become peacekeepers? Through a single-case study, this article accounts for a transformation in peace and security: how Ethiopia became the world's prime source of blue helmets in the early twenty-first century, having largely shunned peacekeeping in preceding decades. We propose that peacekeeping came to serve as an unexpectedly useful technology to pursue state-building agendas. Historically, regional proxy wars undermined state-building efforts in Ethiopia and mismanagement of ethno-linguistic diversity rendered it vulnerable to externally supported rebellions. In the 2000s, an evolving approach to peacekeeping dovetailed with the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front's (EPRDF) vision for recalibrating political order domestically and in the Horn of Africa. EPRDF became convinced that changing Ethiopia required changing its surrounding region. Regional intervention as peacekeeping was supported by global powers and helped bind neighbouring states to Ethiopia in new ways. This entailed the crafting of deep political ties in Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan that mitigated historical fears of Ethiopian hegemony and shielded EPRDF state-building from outside destabilization. Moreover, as Ethiopia's increasingly prominent role in United Nations and African Union missions improved the external environment for the EPRDF developmental state, it also expanded Ethiopian National Defence Force's role in the political economy, buttressing the party-state's hegemony.

African Union Mission in Somalia Considerations for Transition and Kenya’s National Security

This study assessed the implications of the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) on Kenya's national security within the context of AMISOM's transition to the African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS). The objective of the study was analyse achievement of African Union Mission in Somalia mandates, to examine the effects to Kenya's National security and assess transition strategies of national security. The study was guided by Functionalist, Strategic and Securitisation theories. The research employed a mixed-methods research design using questionnaire surveys and interviews with respondents in Kenya's border counties most affected by Somali instability. Study findings established that, while a majority (52%) believe AMISOM has achieved its mandate to a moderate extent, concerns remain regarding the capacity of Somali Security Forces (SSF) and the overall stability of Somalia. In addition, study findings established that while progress has been made in degrading Al-Shabaab and supporting the Somali Federal Government (FGS). However, only a third of respondents believe the SSF has been adequately mentored by AMISOM. Despite success in facilitating humanitarian assistance and Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC) projects, nearly two-thirds believe Somalia lacks the conditions necessary for long-term stability. The study concludes that AMISOM's transition strategy inadequately addresses governance and security aspects essential for Kenyan security. Weak SSF and FGS capacity pose a threat of failed stabilization after AMISOM's withdrawal. Additionally, Kenya's current border security measures are insufficient to manage potential spill over effects. ANOVA indicated an F statistic of 134.318 and a p value of 0.000<0.05 thus the Somalia PSO strategies significantly predict Kenya’s National Security. Regressions weight model (β = -0.451, P = .000<.05) implied that Nature of Somalia PSO strategies negatively influences Kenya’s National Security. The study recommends a revision of the AMISOM transition strategy to include capacity building for FGS and SSF, including forces in federal member states like Jubaland; allocation of sufficient time for a well-monitored transition with clear benchmarks; an exploration cautious negotiations with Al-Shabaab, contingent on a strong FGS and a hybrid AU-UN peacekeeping mission to succeed ATMIS to ensure Kenya's long-term security.

The Evolving Role of the United Nations Secretary General: A Comprehensive Appraisal

The United Nations Secretary-General embodies the aspirations and principles of the international community, serving as a symbol of global unity and advocate for the world's most vulnerable populations. Rooted in the UN Charter, the Secretary-General assumes multifaceted responsibilities spanning administrative, diplomatic, and peacemaking domains. This article provides a historical overview of the Secretary-General's evolution since the inception of the United Nations, delineating the tenure and contributions of each incumbent. Central to the analysis are the core functions of the Secretary-General, including administrative oversight, human resources management, peacekeeping operations, and mediation efforts. Notably, the Secretary-General's authority to address threats to international peace underscores the pivotal role in global security governance. Moreover, the Secretary-General serves as a liaison between the UN organs, world leaders, and member states, facilitating dialogue and consensus-building. Through meticulous examination, this paper elucidates the indispensable role of the Secretary-General in advancing the UN's mission of fostering peace, security, and sustainable development worldwide. Ultimately, it underscores the imperative of collective cooperation among member states to surmount the multifaceted challenges confronting the international community. Keywords: United Nations, Secretary-General, Appraisal of the United Nations, Appraisal of the Secretary-General, and Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Enhancing the Effectiveness of United Nations Peacekeeping Missions

The primary responsibility of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is to maintain international peace and security. Since the establishment of the UN in 1948, UNSC through UNSC resolutions has pursued this aim by authorizing various peacekeeping missions. When the effectiveness of UN missions is analyzed, it has mixed responses. Some UN missions are considered very successful while some are criticized for their underperformance. The peacekeeping force has to operate in a volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous, and highly unpredictable environment with various limitations and constraints. The anti-UN sentiments are observed in some of the missions criticizing its ineffectiveness which has a detrimental effect on the overall credibility of the UN. In this context, the objective of this article is to highlight the challenges of contemporary peacekeeping operations and recommend ways to enhance the effectiveness of peacekeeping forces to deal with prevailing challenges. The article is qualitative and based on secondary data. The personal experience and observation of the author as a peacekeeper in various UN peacekeeping missions in different capacities is also reflected in analyzing the weaknesses and effectiveness of contemporary UN peacekeeping missions. The major findings of this article are that UN missions in Chapter VII and VIII mandate need improvement in multiple facets for the effective implementation of mission mandates like R2P and PoC. The rising anti-UN sentiments in different UN missions and increasing trend by host nations demanding the closure of contemporary UN missions further advocate revitalization in the UN peacekeeping approach.

Differential methylation of linoleic acid pathway genes is associated with PTSD symptoms – a longitudinal study with Burundian soldiers returning from a war zone

Soldiers may be exposed to traumatic stress during combat deployment and thus are at risk for developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Genetic and epigenetic evidence suggests that PTSD is linked to forming stress-related memories. In the current study, we investigated post-deployment associations of PTSD symptoms with differential DNA methylation in a sample of Burundian soldiers returning from the African Union Mission in Somalia’s war zone. We used a matched longitudinal study design to explore epigenetic changes associated with PTSD symptoms in N = 191 participants. PTSD symptoms and saliva samples were collected at 1–3 (t1) and 9–14 months (t2) after the return of the soldiers to their home base. Individuals with either worsening or improving PTSD symptoms were matched for age, stressful, traumatic and self-perpetrated events prior to the post-assessment, traumatic and violent experiences between the post- and the follow-up assessment, and violence experienced during childhood. A mixed model analysis was conducted to identify top nominally significantly differentially methylated genes, which were then used to perform a gene enrichment analysis. The linoleic acid metabolism pathway was significantly associated with post-deployment PTSD symptoms, after accounting for multiple comparisons. Linoleic acid has been linked to memory and immune related processes in previous research. Our findings suggest that differential methylation of linoleic acid pathway genes is associated with PTSD and thus may merit closer inspection as a possible mediator of resilience.

Nacionalni interes Republike Srbije za učešće Vojske Srbije u mirovnim operacijama

Peacekeeping operations are one of the instruments for resolving crises in the world and preventing armed conflicts that threaten global peace and security. This article argues that the participation of the Serbian Armed Forces in UN missions contributed to peacekeeping in the world and produced positive benefits for the country. Namely, the Serbian Armed Forces inherits the tradition of many years of participation in UN and EU peacekeeping operations. This article first provides an overview of the most important contributions of the Republic of Serbia to peacekeeping operations, focusing on the important role that this activity plays in the achievement of foreign policy goals, national development and international relations. This is followed by the presentation of national legislation that regulates the Serbian Armed Forces participation in peacekeeping operations. Therefore, peacekeeping operations are recognized as a type of multilateral mechanism for achieving cooperation between the Republic of Serbia and the UN/EU and a contribution to building trust and the position of a reliable partner in international relations. The theory of international relations that explains such actions of states is the realism theory. In accordance with realists school of thought, state national interests for participation in peacekeeping operations are military security issues, national and strategic interests as well as economic interests, and increased credibility and power of states in international relations. Starting from the fact that global security is comprehensive and indivisible, states are even more interested in participating in peacekeeping operations and perceive it as their national interests and an element of foreign and security policy. This is the initial thesis from which the authors base their analysis presented in the paper.

African Union’s Peace and Security Strategy: A Case Study of UNAMID in Darfur and the Role of Darfurian Culture in Conflict Resolution

This article evaluates the African Union’s (AU) peace and security strategy by analyzing the United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) as a case study. It also explores the potential role of Darfurian culture in resolving conflicts. Qualitative research methods, including document analysis, are used to identify the successes and limitations of UNAMID in promoting peace and security in Darfur. The study finds that while UNAMID has made significant contributions, challenges such as inadequate funding, weak coordination, and insufficient post-conflict resources persist. The article recommends strengthening the AU’s strategy by increasing financial and technical support, improving coordination mechanisms, and implementing more comprehensive post-conflict reconstruction and development approaches. Through enhancing the AU’s strategy, sustainable peace and security can be achieved in the continent.

Special Issue on the Evolving Nature of African-Led Peace Support Operations and African Armies

Abstract This special issue delves into the evolving nature of African-led Peace Support Operations and their development over the last two decades. The authors explore how states have improved their security and military capabilities to face emerging and existing threats. The papers in this issue illustrate how African-led operations have progressed and how they have been designed to stabilise states, environments, and regions. These operations have been complemented by Regional Economic Communities/ Regional Mechanisms (recs/rms) and Ad-hoc Security Initiatives, which have all deployed intervention missions to tackle various challenges. The papers also note that the increasing presence of African troops in UN missions with stabilisation mandates has allowed the au, recs/rms, and state military to learn through training, national rules of engagement, and civil-military relations and to contribute diverse first-hand experience in African-led Peace Support Operations and UN peacekeeping efforts. Finally, the special issue explores whether some sub-Saharan African states have employed restructuring policies by deploying forces to African-led psos and UN peacekeeping operations and whether this strategy has impacted the effectiveness of their forces.

Countering Terrorism through Peace Support Operations, Lessons from the African Union Mission in Somalia

Abstract The African Union (au) has responded to the political and security crisis in Somalia by deploying the au Mission in Somalia (amisom) in 2007. The amisom was au’s largest and the most complex peace support operation and one of its strategic objectives became degrading Al-Shabaab and reducing the threat posed by terrorist groups. While amisom has contributed to reducing the territorial spread of the group, over the past 16 years, it has at a heavy cost of counterterrorism operations deployed in extremely risky conditions, resulting in high cost of human life. Drawing on some of the lessons of amisom, this paper examines the effectiveness and sustainability of African-led Peace Support Operations in countering terrorism. The paper illustrates some of the shortfalls of military heavy response and makes the case for a conceptual framework (comprehensive approach), for dealing with the threat of terrorism in Somalia driven by a number of underlying political, economic and social factors. Finally, the paper reflects on how amisom has shaped continental policies and responses to insecurity.

Mothers at peace: International peacebuilding and post-conflict fertility

A considerable body of empirical evidence indicates that conflict affects reproductive behaviour, often resulting in an increased fertility rate due to higher child mortality and limited access to healthcare services. However, we know much less about the effect of peace in a post-conflict setting. This study explores how the external provision of security affects fertility by focusing on the UN intervention in Liberia. We combine DHS birth history data with information on road distance to UN military compounds and find that women living in the proximity of peacekeepers have lower fertility rates in the deployment period. This is due to parents prioritizing quality over quantity: peacekeepers improve maternal and child health and encourage family planning by enabling donors and humanitarian actors to deliver infrastructures and services and facilitating citizens’ access to such services. We also provide evidence that the UN mission revitalizes local economic activities, thus increasing the opportunity cost of childbearing.

Kwame Nkrumah’s Intervention in the 1960s Congo Crisis: a Pan-African Geopolitics and Personality Trait

Abstract Utilizing archival materials and existing literature, the article examines the contending rationales motivating Nkrumah’s decision to support the UN mission in the Congo during the 1960s political crisis. Existing scholarship, to date, appreciates Nkrumah’s involvement from the perspectives of African camaraderie, anti-imperial mawkishness, and regional leadership. However, beyond these elucidations, the optimal focus should be driven by Pan-Africanism geopolitics, the leadership traits and African political unification agenda of Nkrumah. The paper reveals how the UN mission was perceived by Nkrumah as an avenue to forbid the powers of the bipolar system to interfere with the right of “sovereign self-determination” within the domestic affairs of the Congo. The article’s findings and conclusion posit that the UN operation provided a boulevard of latitude for Nkrumah’s grander pan-African geopolitical ambition coupled with his own leadership traits. The failure of his mission was relative, given the normative value of his pan-African dream.

UN Mission in Bosnia

This paper argues that the UN failed in its peace mission to Bosnia (UNMIBH), playing an actively detrimental role in the victims’ experience of sexual exploitation and human trafficking, and an insufficient role in holding accountable those who were at fault. The immediate response was intended for the benefit of the UN’s public image rather than the victims, and the Zero-Tolerance Policy that was later implemented made insufficient changes in the prevalence of abuse. This paper recommends implementing mechanisms to remove UN immunity from those who have committed such violent acts, such that they face consequences more serious than merely returning home. Other recommendations include expanded understanding and training regarding organized crime presence in post-conflict zones, more precisely defined measures regarding the accountability of private military companies, and an improved reporting mechanism for victims of sex crimes on peacekeeping missions. While this problem is certainly deep-rooted, tangible change must be made and experienced by those who depend on the UN.

Missions and Cohesion Policy: is there a match?

Abstract This paper explores possibilities for cross-fertilization between the mission-oriented approach (MOA), informing the European Union (EU) Missions, and Cohesion Policy (CP). It argues for mutual policy learning between CP and MOA to address their shortcomings: CP faces a gradual erosion of its identity, while MOA lacks a territorial perspective. MOA can offer a theoretical ‘blueprint’ for reorganizing and clarifying CP’s ever-expanding and blurred thematic scope, providing direction to strengthen CP’s result orientation, and encouraging the adoption of ‘whole-of-government’ approaches to streamline CP’s complex governance relationships. MOA can benefit from adopting the CP architecture, which allows for common broad priorities to be adapted to territorial contexts and to regional strategies. MOA could also learn from CP’s goal of maximizing equity and efficiency, its focus on empowering regions, and its redistributive approach for fostering the full potential of all regions to address societal challenges to support the objectives of the EU Missions.