ultra-Orthodox Women Research Articles

The EITC Program in Israel: Employment Effects and Evidence on the Differential Impacts of Family vs. Individual-Income Based Design

The Israeli EITC program is based on individual incomes, unlike the EITC programs in the US and the UK, which supplement low-income families' earnings according to the combined family income. Using a large administrative panel dataset of tax and benefit records, and the natural experiment created by the gradual implementation of the program, we find that the absence of interdependence between spouses' benefits curtails the negative employment effects that were found for married women in the US and the UK. We find that an increase of NIS 100 in the monthly EITC amount is associated with a reduction of 0.6 percentage points in the probability of an eligible person to stop working, and that EITC eligibility is associated on average with a reduction of 1- 1.5 percentage points in exits from employment, about 20-25 percent of the exit rate among the relevant populations. We also find that spousal collection of an EITC has no negative effect on employment, except among ultraorthodox women and young (ages 23-35) mothers to newborns (ages 0-2) that are not eligible for the EITC themselves. Finally, we find that the EITC has the largest positive effect on the employment of ultraorthodox men - a population characterized by low employment rates – and on older women (55+ years old). These findings stress the importance of EITC programs' design in balancing employment-encouragement and precise targeting of social expenditure for reducing poverty among low-income families.

Forming an Affiliation Between Two Culturally Different Academic Institutions of Nursing Studies.

IntroductionThis article describes the association of two culturally different institutions opening a joint Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) program for ultra-Orthodox Jewish (Haredi) women in order to enable them to find jobs due to changes in their society and increasing global demand for nurses in the labor market. The objective of this description is to illustrate the efforts and changes needed to facilitate the affiliation of two culturally and ideologically different organizations and the implications and conclusions of such a program.MethodsThe study is based on interviews with past administrators, a review of the literature, and supporting institution documents.ConclusionsA joint nursing academic program was founded by two culturally different educational institutions for the ultra-Orthodox Jewish women population. Creating a culturally sensitive nursing academic program helped ultra-Orthodox women acquire an academic profession which enabled their integration into the academic professional's work world and add more nurses to the labor market.The authors reviewed the efforts and changes needed to facilitate the affiliation of two culturally and ideologically different organizations based on the Bolman and Deal four frames model.

Feminine Identity in Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Women's Contemporary Art

Feminine Identity in Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Women's Contemporary Art Noa Lea Cohn (bio) MY MARILYN MONROE: YEHUDIT LEVY'S VISION OF SARAH SCHENIRER On the cover of this issue of Shofar is a remarkable piece of art entitled My Marilyn Monroe 1, part of the series Identity Cardiogram (2016) by the Haredi artist Yehudit Levy (b. 1993, a pseudonym). In the series, Levy contests some conceptual and philosophical principles of her own community, Haredi society—and courageously and critically brings to the fore burning issues. This image corresponds with and responds to Western celebrity culture. It uses as its model Marilyn Monroe, a sex symbol, brand name, and collective icon in Western culture. In this work, Levy replaces Monroe with an image of Sarah Schenirer, founder of the Bais Yaakov school movement, who has become a mother figure and role model in Haredi society. This work of art demands that scholars address a topic rarely brought to the fore: women's identity among female ultra-Orthodox Jewish artists.1 My analyses of My Marilyn Monroe 1 and other works created over the first two decades of this millennium are drawn from anthropologist Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus, which looks at cultural structures, practices, and codes.2 This analysis also dismantles the stereotype of Jewish ultra-Orthodoxy as one hue of black—based on their mode of dressing in black clothing—when in actuality the society has "multicolored" nuances within and among its streams and sub-streams. As director and curator of the first gallery representing the ultra-Orthodox community, the ArtShelter Gallery, which has created opportunities to showcase to the public Haredi art and fostered dialogue between diverse communities, I have been in a unique position to gauge the state of the field of ultra-Orthodox women's [End Page 281] contemporary art. Following my discussion of Levy's work, I will offer my perspective on this exciting, emerging area of artistic production. For years, artwork was underdeveloped—or not developed at all—among ultra-Orthodox Jews.3 This dearth of artwork happened for two reasons: first, there is an injunction against creating idols or graven images, and, second, Torah study is paramount for men, leaving no time for "recreational" activities such as art. Conversely, women are not bound by the obligation for daily Torah study, and therefore they have been permitted the time it takes to be dedicated to creative arts. That said, women's involvement was generally craft based, and when they engaged in more traditional high-art forms, it was largely hobby based, with little to no disciplined study nor career development. This has changed in the past decade, in large part due to the influx of the newly religious, a number of whom brought professional and/or academic training in the arts. Even though professional art training began to emerge within ultra-Orthodox circles, the specific topical focus on women or femininity was skirted by most female artists due to its political and social complexity within the culture. Yet the emergence of a few female ultra-Orthodox artists whose work homed in on the feminine—be it directly or indirectly—are the focus of this article. Levy's work offers a creative evocation of an important figure in the lives of many Orthodox girls and women and highlights a significant history. In the nineteenth century, as part of quotas that required Jews to study in non-Jewish institutions of learning, girls were placed within the educational system in Eastern Europe and particularly the Pale of Settlement. By sending girls to school in order to fulfill the quota, the Jewish communities enabled boys to continue their religious learning. The impact of this secular education for girls was generations of Jewish women with a general and political education, who spoke foreign languages (not only Yiddish), and became cultural consumers of theater, music, and novels. These same Jewish women, however, were forbidden from widening their Jewish education. This prohibition was based on the Talmudic ruling, "whoever teaches his daughter Torah, teaches her obscenity" (BT, Sotah 20a). But there was a concern that secular [End Page 282] education opened the door to Jewish women's assimilation, that young...

Education and Employment Among Ultra-Orthodox Women in Israel: Modernity and Conservatism—The Case of the Shas Party

In ultra-Orthodox Israeli societies, the male leadership controls sources of knowledge and education. The women are directed towards fields of knowledge regarding education and social welfare, so that they will remain in a home environment. Even when working outside the home. In contrast, this article will demonstrate that there is an ultra-Orthodox society in Israel, in which the male political and spiritual leadership encourages women to acquire an academic and professional education so they will be able to fulfill themselves and make a respectable living. The test case is the leadership of the ultra-Orthodox Shas Party and its attitude to women’s education and their employment outside the community. The article will also demonstrate that despite the modern values of education and employment, the men’s hierarchical status is retained.

The politics of (in)visibility displays: Ultra-Orthodox women manoeuvring within and between visibility regimes

How does the multiplicity of surveilling gazes affect the experience of employees subjected to a matrix of domination in organisations? Building on a case study of ultra-religious Jewish women in Israeli high-tech organisations, the article demonstrates how the intersectionality of gender and religiosity exposed them to a matrix of contradicting visibility regimes – managerial, peers, and religious community. By displaying their compliance with each visibility regime, they were constructed as hyper-subjugated employees, but simultaneously were able to use (in)visibility as a resource. Specifically, by manoeuvring between the various gazes and playing one visibility regime against the other, they challenged some of the organisational and religious norms that served to marginalise them, yet upheld their status as worthy members of both institutions. Juxtaposing theoretical insights from organisational surveillance and gender studies, the article reveals the role of multiple surveilling gazes in both the reproduction of minorities’ marginalisation, and their ability to mobilise it to maintain their collective identities.

Treating ultra‐orthodox adolescents with eating disorders in Israel: Culturally‐sensitive interventions, difficulties, and dilemmas

Young ultra-Orthodox women in Israel have been faced in recent years with a greater risk of developing disordered eating, as they are more exposed to Westernized norms of the thin-body ideal, self-realization, and personal choice. Most are treated by mainstream Israeli psychotherapists who likely have different value systems and different perspectives on the nature of the illness, aims of treatment, and recovery. Ultra-Orthodox psychotherapists may well experience a conflict between a need to be loyal to their patients and a concomitant need to honor the values of patients' families and the community from which they come. The current article presents a theoretical background and four case studies highlighting the complexities and controversies inherent in the treatment of these women. We conclude that both ultra-Orthodox and mainstream secular psychotherapists must be knowledgeable in regard to both Judaism and psychology, and be flexible, creative, and emphatic to all parties, to arrive at a compromised definition of recovery that can be accepted by the patient, her family, and her community.

“For We ascend in holiness and do not descend.” Jewish ultra-Orthodox women’s agency through their discourse about media

ABSTRACT“Permission” and “prohibition” are key terms in Jewish religious discourse. For generations they have dominated as part of the primarily male, rabbinic discourse in talmudic literature. This paper will show that men no longer hold the monopoly on these terms because contemporary Israeli ultra-Orthodox women include them in their daily conversation in multiple and varied ways. The study examines exposure patterns and perceptions of 42 ultra-Orthodox women toward sectarian and general mass media. In responses to detailed questionnaires, the words “prohibited,” “forbidden” and “a boundary” constantly recur along with a variety of negatives, such as “not permitted,” “not allowed” and “not kosher”.This paper argues that in describing their uses of and perceptions toward mass media, ultra-Orthodox women have adopted terminology borrowed from what was previously a primarily male-dominated conversation. Some might argue that these women are simply working within the bounds of ultra-Orthodox law which they accept as universally applicable; or perhaps that these women are simply reflecting words used by their husbands or rabbis. However, this study argues that their adoption of these terms indicates they are exercising their own agency. With a combined religious and secular education, and work that is primarily outside the house, many of them are the principal breadwinners in their homes. I suggest that this discourse is a part of their highly intelligent navigation of their simultaneous roles as both gatekeepers and change agents.

Women of, for, and at the Wall: A Performative Analysis of Gender Politics at the Western Wall in Jerusalem

Women of, for, and at the WallA Performative Analysis of Gender Politics at the Western Wall in Jerusalem Tanya Sermer (bio) For more than twenty-five years the Western Wall in Jerusalem has been the focus of heated controversy over gender roles in Judaism, the character of public space in the city, and the relationship between religious and state authority. At the center of these controversies is the women’s prayer group Women of the Wall (WoW, Neshot Hakotel in Hebrew) and a group convened to work against them, the Women for the Wall (W4W).1 In this study, I examine performances by and of the WoW and the W4W through the lens of bodily practices and power relations, building upon theories regarding performativity, agency, and the material manifestation of discursive norms. By considering how governing authorities control movement, access, and bodily practices in order to impose a particular framework of gendered behavior, I look at how each group reclaims its voices and bodies to challenge and reinscribe gendered religious practice. I analyze how the WoW’s practices are affected and mediated by the presence of a large viewing audience (supporters, opposition, police surveillance, and the media), ultimately articulating a critique of liberal agency and the extent to which the uncritical valorization of choice and voice can distort scholarly perspectives across a range of cultural and religious contexts. The central focus of Jewish religious geography is the since-destroyed Holy Temple, originally built by King Solomon more than two millennia ago at a location chosen by King David in what is today called the Old City of Jerusalem. Though the original temple is long gone, the rectangular base of the enormous Temple compound built by King Herod at the end of the Second Temple period [End Page 48] does survive. The Western Wall, called the Kotel in Hebrew (al-Ha’itu ‘l-Buraq in Arabic), is a part of the western retaining wall of this compound and is believed to be the site closest to what was once the Holy of Holies—the most sacred space in the Temple. The Kotel has therefore become the central religious and historical site in Jewish tradition. Men and women, locals and tourists, Jews and non-Jews congregate in this plaza for sightseeing, celebration, and worship. The area closest to the Kotel is divided by a barrier (mehitzah) into women’s and men’s prayer spaces in accordance with orthodox standards for gender segregation during prayer.2 Click for larger view View full resolution Fig. 1. Division of space at the Kotel plaza and Robinson’s Arch area. January 29, 2010. ©Tanya Sermer. Founded in 1989, the Women of the Wall is a group of Jewish women from across the religious spectrum, both Israeli and from around the world, who gather to pray at the Kotel every month on Rosh Hodesh, the festival of the New Moon and traditionally a women’s celebration. The group conducts its worship according to Jewish law, halakhah, but in a manner that does not resemble the individual, silent recitation that is normative for orthodox women. The Women of the Wall conducts its services in the women’s section of the prayer plaza using a Torah scroll, which ultraorthodox Jews forbid to be touched by women; wearing tallit (pl. tallitot) and tefillin, the prayer shawl and phylacteries traditionally worn only by men; and involving communal singing and recitation, prohibited by women in the presence of men, according to the dictum of kol isha—rabbinic laws that regulate whether or not and in which contexts men may listen to or hear the voices of women, the interpretation of which varies depending on history and community.3 [End Page 49] It is for the reason of kol isha that ultraorthodox women regularly “shush” the WoW, why the sections of the service with the most singing elicit the strongest opposition, and why men make noise—yelling, banging on tables, blowing horns (shofars) and whistles—to drown out their sound. The WoW has endured verbal and physical abuse at the hands of passionate ultraorthodox antagonists and has repeatedly sued the state for protection. Ultra orthodox women in the women’s section...

The surprising lack of connection between social networks and the enterprise success of ultra-religious female micro-entrepreneurs

PurposeThe utilization of social networks is known to have an impact on micro-enterprise success. This study aims to examine the contribution of social networks in acquiring resources and their role in the enterprise’s success.Design/methodology/approachA business’s success is influenced by its network structure and the network’s resources. The authors examine whether unique religious-cultural characteristics affect the social networks contribution to a business’s success. This model examines the network utilization of women entrepreneurs who own micro-enterprises in ultra-religious groups. The sample consists of 123 surveys completed by Jewish ultra-Orthodox women entrepreneurs in Israel. Data collection was conducted between February and June 2013. The authors used a snowball sampling approach where interviewees were asked to refer us to other entrepreneurs. In the hour-long interview, a questionnaire was used with open and closed questions.FindingsFindings indicate that strong personal ties provide a micro-enterprise with social legitimacy, emotional support and assistance in the management and operation of daily activities. However, contrary to the existing literature, network utilization did not contribute to enterprise success. That is, in religious communities in particular, social networks enable the existence of businesses, but do not contribute to their success.Practical implicationsThe practical implications of this paper are the mapping of the social network resources used by the business owner, such as financial consultations or professional assistance, as well as distinguishing between strong and weak ties, which reflect the intensity of the contact for better use of the social network by the entrepreneurs.Originality/valueThis study examined social networks’ contribution to the acquisition of resources, as well as the part they play in the success of ultra-orthodox women micro-entrepreneurs and perhaps other religious and minorities groups.

Ultra-Orthodox women pursuing higher education: motivations and challenges

ABSTRACTHighly religious students from fundamentalist or sectarian religious communities face unique challenges in pursuing higher education, directly bearing on their educational opportunities. This study reports findings on ultra-Orthodox Jewish female students in Israel, a group which only recently began pursuing higher education. Using a mixed-methods design, we surveyed 469 students and conducted in-depth interviews with 61 additional students in order to explore their motivations, concerns and challenges in pursuing higher education. The interviews elicited narratives of a ‘Heroine’s Journey’ format, indicating that for many of these women, entering college is perceived as a transformative series of trials. Challenges and management techniques were identified, primarily concerning value and worldview conflicts. A k-means cluster analysis of the survey revealed five distinct profiles of students (practical, driven, anxious, self-realizers and conventional) with differential demographic characteristics. We analyze these results as reflecting ‘multiple traditionalities’ and discuss their implications for supporting highly religious students in higher education.

Dancing at Both Weddings

A new feminist movement is on the rise in Israel. It is led by haredi (ultra-Orthodox) women, usually known for their silent acquiescence to the rabbinate. They are not looking to create a revolution, but their activism may have implications not only for women, but for Israel in general. Based on interviews with haredi activists, Knesset (Parliament) members, secular and religious women heads of ngos, and academics, we contend that political activism, especially for haredi women with little education, experience, and resources, is not ironic, but rather, an appropriate vehicle for advancing their agenda. Other avenues of activity are closed for haredi women. Politics, which is assimilated into the category of “secular” activities, is likely to generate less opposition from their community. Haredi women and the state of Israel are trying to dance at two different weddings: at one, the tune being played is that of women’s rights and democracy; at the other, it is Jewish law, with its religious patriarchy.

The learners' society: Continuity and change in characteristics of education and employment among Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) women

The learners' society: Continuity and change in characteristics of education and employment among Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) women

The medium is the danger: Discourse about television among Amish and Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) women

The medium is the danger: Discourse about television among Amish and Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) women

Gender, religion and new media: Attitudes and behaviours related to the internet among Ultra-Orthodox women employed in computerized environments

Gender, religion and new media: Attitudes and behaviours related to the internet among Ultra-Orthodox women employed in computerized environments

Agency of preservation or change: ultra-Orthodox educated women in the field of employment

ABSTRACTWithin the last two decades, significant changes have been taking place in ultra-Orthodox society in Israel regarding higher education and entry into the workforce. This study examines the socio-religious identity of educated ultra-Orthodox women in light of their entry into the workforce. Findings show that although these women are leading a process of academic and occupational changes in the ultra-Orthodox community, they actually function as agents of preservation, and attest to a rise in their level of religiosity, despite the changes in their lives. Most of them continue to maintain the core values of Ultra-Orthodox society, especially the ideal of a ‘society of scholars’. They do reveal some openness towards the world, but in a limited and controlled manner.

Negotiating agency: Amish and Ultra-Orthodox women's responses to new media

Negotiating agency: Amish and Ultra-Orthodox women's responses to new media

Factors associated with routine screening for the early detection of breast cancer in cultural-ethnic and faith-based communities

ABSTRACTObjectives: Studies have shown a lower adherence to health behaviors among women in cultural-ethnic minorities and faith-based communities, especially lower screening attendance for the early detection of breast cancer. This study compares factors related to cancer screening adherence in two distinct cultural-ethnic minorities in Israel: Arab women as a cultural-ethnic minority and Jewish ultra-Orthodox women as a cultural-ethnic faith-based minority.Design: During the year 2014, a total of 398 Jewish ultra-Orthodox women and 401 Arab women between the ages of 40–60, were randomly selected using population-based registries. These women answered questionnaires regarding adherence to mammography and clinical breast examination (CBE), health beliefs and cultural barriers.Results: Arab women adhered more than ultra-Orthodox women to mammography (p < .001) and CBE exams (p < .01). Religious beliefs, exposure barriers and perceived risk were higher among the ultra-Orthodox women, while social barriers, accessibility barriers and perceived severity were higher among the Arab women (p < .01). Adjusting for background factors, higher adherence to CBE and mammography were associated with lower levels of religious beliefs (AOR = 0.90, 95% CI = 0.69–1.17 AOR = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.39–0.82, respectively), perceiving a higher risk of cancer (AOR = 1.93, 95% CI = 1.23–3.04 and AOR = 3.22, 95% CI = 1.53–6.61), and having more fears related to cancer-related losses (AOR = 1.51, 95% CI = 1.19–3.00 and AOR = 1.24, 95% CI = 0.63–1.22). In addition, perceiving greater advantages of CBE was associated with higher adherence to CBE (AOR = 1.82, 95% CI = 1.45–2.29), while not receiving a physician’s recommendation was associated with lower adherence to mammography (AOR = 1.82, 95% CI = 1.45–2.29).Conclusion: This study addressed a lacuna in screening behaviors of women from cultural-ethnic and faith-based communities. In order to increase adherence, health care professionals and policymakers should direct their attention to the specific nature of each community.

Does God Want Me to Be a Teacher? Motives Behind Occupational Choice of Israeli Ultraorthodox Women

Motives behind occupational choice of graduates in two tertiary training programs for Israeli ultraorthodox (Haredi) women, practical engineering (PE) and teaching (T), are explored. Five hundred and twelve participants (278 PEs and 234 Ts) answered a questionnaire referring to 13 potential work motives. The main findings are as follows: (a) factor analysis reveals that the 13 components cluster into the four composite factors of “intrinsic motive,” “calling motive,” “extrinsic motives relating to job conditions,” and “extrinsic motives relating to effect of choice on society”; (b) t tests show that PEs express higher intrinsic motives than Ts and Ts express a higher sense of “calling” than PEs; and (c) t tests further show that for the whole sample, intrinsic motives are ranked higher than extrinsic motives (relating to both job conditions and society). Discussion suggests counseling and public policy that can lead to more successful integration of Haredi women into the world of labor.

The Medium Is the Danger: Discourse about Television among Amish and Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Women

ABSTRACTThis study shows how Old Order Amish and ultra-Orthodox women’s discourse about television can help develop a better understanding of the creation, construction, and strengthening of limits and boundaries separating enclave cultures from the world. Based on questionnaires containing both closed- and open-ended questions completed by 82 participants, approximately half from each community, I argue that both communities can be understood as interpretive communities that negatively interpret not only television content, like other religious communities, but also the medium itself. Their various negative interpretive strategies is discussed and the article shows how they are part of an “us-versus-them” attitude created to mark the boundaries and walls that enclave cultures build around themselves. The comparison between the two communities found only a few small differences but one marked similarity: The communities perceive avoidance of a tool for communication, in this case television, as part of the communities’ sharing, participation, and common culture.

Choosing One's Life: Identity-swapping Plots in Popular Fiction by Israeli &lt;em&gt;Haredi&lt;/em&gt; Women

The article discusses literature by ultra-Orthodox women in Israel that targets an adult ultra-Orthodox audience. In particular, it examines plots of “identity swapping” in haredi women’s fiction published by haredi publishers in Israel. This choice helps probe this corpus as a whole, as well as the methods that have shaped haredi identities in recent years in Israel. It argues that in texts written in the haredi community, even if the characters ultimately choose a religious identity, whether inborn or acquired, the very examination of the alternatives opened up during this period of indecision is as significant as the actual choice. As haredi authors are obligated to comply with the ideological and Halachic norms of their community, the choice of haredi identity at the end of the novel is almost imperative. Yet the opportunity to ponder this choice or to welcome possibilities inherent in other identities paves the way to a refreshed and more varied haredi identity. Looking closely at these dramatic moments and the choices characters made in their wake, it explores the relationship between community, identity, and identification as represented in this popular fiction.