Ultra Narrow Row Research Articles

Influence of Ultranarrow Row and Conventional Row Cotton on the Last Effective Boll Population

The last effective boll population (LEBP) is the basis for many cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) management decisions such as defoliation timing. The objective of this research was to determine the last effective boll population based on first position bolls for both ultranarrow row cotton (UNRC), grown in rows spaced 25 cm or less, and conventional cotton (CONC) grown in rows spaced 96 to 102 cm. Experimental sites included locations in North Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Texas. At each site, UNRC and CONC plots were planted in a RCB design. At first flower, 15 plants per plot were flagged for subsequent flower tagging. On each flagged plant, all first position flowers were tagged every 2 d throughout the reproductive stage with date and nodes above white flower (NAWF) data for each plant. Tagged bolls were handpicked, sorted, counted, and seedcotton was weighed and recorded by NAWF for each plot. The last effective boll population was considered that NAWF position where cotton could be economically produced. Cotton could be produced economically at NAWF 2 and 3 for UNRC and CONC, respectively. Lint yield did not differ significantly between UNRC and CONC across site‐years. The UNRC produced the majority of seedcotton on NAWF 3 to 5, while CONC produced the most seedcotton at NAWF 4 to 6. Boll numbers showed a similar pattern. These data demonstrate that physiological cutout occurred at NAWF <5 in both UNRC and CONC.

Plant Responses of Ultra Narrow Row Cotton to Nitrogen Fertilization

ABSTRACT Recent developments in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production technology in the Mississippi River Delta region include drill planting cotton. Production systems that include drill planting cotton are referred to as ultra narrow row (UNR). Ultra narrow row cotton production is a low input system designed to maximize economic returns. Cotton grown under UNR systems is generally lower yielding and lower returning than conventionally spaced cotton, but the inputs and input costs are also generally reduced compared to conventionally spaced cotton production systems. Studies were conducted for five location-years in southeastern and northeastern Arkansas to determine the optimum N-fertilizer rate for UNR cotton. Plant maturity was estimated using nodes above white flower (NAWF) measurements. The NAWF indicated that greater nitrogen (N)-rates delayed maturity of the crop, although differences were not always significant. Lint yields were significantly different in only three of five location-years. Yield responses of UNR cotton tended to maximize with N-treatments between 56 and 84 kg N ha− 1 when significant differences were observed. Plant height, similar to lint yield, was significantly different due to N-treatments in three out of five location-years, and generally increased with increasing N-fertilization up to 112 kg N ha− 1. Boll load was significantly influenced by N-fertilization in only two of five location years. In these two instances, 84 kg N ha− 1 was sufficient to maximize boll load. Boll weight, a component of yield, was determined in the southern Arkansas location only. Significant differences in boll weight due to N-fertilization were found in only two of four years. Boll weight generally increased with increasing N-fertilization.

Timing of Maturity in Ultra‐Narrow and Conventional Row Cotton as Affected by Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate

Ultra‐narrow row (UNR) systems and N fertilizer can influence cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crop maturation. Study objectives were to measure impacts of UNR systems and N fertilizer rates on cotton maturation and to identify mechanisms by which these effects occurred. The location was Burleson County, Texas. In the split plot design, whole plots were N rates of 0, 50, 101, and 151 kg ha−1. Split plots were 19‐, 38‐ (both UNR), and 76‐cm (conventional row, CR) row spacings with 296,600, 195,400, and 136,300 plants ha−1, respectively. Thirty, 60, and 85% harvestable seedcotton each occurred 1.5 to 2.9 d earlier in UNR than CR spacings. First boll set occurred 1 d later in 19‐cm than in wider row spacings. Boll set rate m−2 was greater in 19‐ than 76‐cm row spacing during a 5‐d flowering period shortly after first boll set, but did not differ by row spacing during three flowering periods thereafter. The percentage first position bolls was lower with wider row spacing, suggesting greater potential for concurrent boll set at multiple sites on individual plants. Eventual development of nonfirst position fruiting sites in 76‐cm row spacing may have contributed to confinement of faster boll set in 19‐cm row spacing to early bloom. Nitrogen rates did not affect the timing of 30, 60, or 85% harvest. Reductions in bolls plant−1 were counteracted by slower boll set rates with lower N. The limited observed interactions of N and row spacing do not suggest advantages from suboptimal N rates in UNR cotton.

Timing of Maturity in Ultra-Narrow and Conventional Row Cotton as Affected by Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate

Ultra-narrow row (UNR) systems and N fertilizer can influence cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crop maturation. Study objectives were to measure impacts of UNR systems and N fertilizer rates on cotton maturation and to identify mechanisms by which these effects occurred. The location was Burleson County, Texas. In the split plot design, whole plots were N rates of 0, 50, 101, and 151 kg ha−1. Split plots were 19-, 38- (both UNR), and 76-cm (conventional row, CR) row spacings with 296,600, 195,400, and 136,300 plants ha−1, respectively. Thirty, 60, and 85% harvestable seedcotton each occurred 1.5 to 2.9 d earlier in UNR than CR spacings. First boll set occurred 1 d later in 19-cm than in wider row spacings. Boll set rate m−2 was greater in 19- than 76-cm row spacing during a 5-d flowering period shortly after first boll set, but did not differ by row spacing during three flowering periods thereafter. The percentage first position bolls was lower with wider row spacing, suggesting greater potential for concurrent boll set at multiple sites on individual plants. Eventual development of nonfirst position fruiting sites in 76-cm row spacing may have contributed to confinement of faster boll set in 19-cm row spacing to early bloom. Nitrogen rates did not affect the timing of 30, 60, or 85% harvest. Reductions in bolls plant−1 were counteracted by slower boll set rates with lower N. The limited observed interactions of N and row spacing do not suggest advantages from suboptimal N rates in UNR cotton.

Spurred anoda (Anoda cristata) interference in wide row and ultra narrow row cotton

A field experiment was conducted in 2000, 2001, and 2002 at Stoneville, MS, to determine the effect of spurred anoda interference on yield loss of two cotton cultivars, ‘Delta Pine 5415’ and ‘Pima S-6’, grown under wide (1 m) (WR) and ultra narrow (0.25 m) row (UNR) spacings. The relationship between spurred anoda density and dry weight per plot was linear each year. At a spurred anoda density of 8 m−2, spurred anoda dry weight per plot was 507, 322, and 777 g m−2in 2000, 2001, and 2002, respectively. However, spurred anoda did not interfere with seed cotton yield in 2001, which was probably attributable to the low branch development in that year. Yield losses exceeded 55% at a spurred anoda density of 8 m−2compared with controls in both WR and UNR. The effect of spurred anoda density on boll numbers was nearly identical in 2000 and 2002, regardless of cotton cultivar and row spacing. Boll weights decreased in response to spurred anoda interference. Spurred anoda interference resulted in a decrease in cotton branch dry weight in WR but not in UNR. The yield decrease as a result of spurred anoda interference in WR was due to reduction in boll retention or fruiting sites (predicated on a decrease in branch weight). However, in UNR, the yield decrease was due to plant mortality; the plant density of both cotton cultivars decreased by one plant for each additional spurred anoda, but the yield per plant for surviving plants remained constant. Neither WR nor UNR cotton had significant advantage in response to spurred anoda interference. The decreased boll weight observed in UNR, and the failure to increase boll numbers m−2to compensate for decreased boll weight in UNR compared with WR, may limit its appeal to cotton producers.

Runoff and soil loss from ultra-narrow row cotton plots with and without stiff-grass hedges

Grass hedges and no-till cropping systems reduced soil losses on standard erosion plots in ultra-narrow row (20 cm) cotton during a 4-year study (1999–2002). No-till cotton with grass hedges, no-till cotton without grass hedges, conventional-till cotton with grass hedges, and conventional-till cotton without grass hedges produced 4-year average annual soil losses of 1.8, 2.9, 4.0, and 30.8 t ha −1, respectively, and produced 4-year average runoff amounts of 267, 245, 353, and 585 mm, respectively. The annual ratio of soil loss for no-till ultra-narrow row cotton plots with grass hedges to those without hedges averaged 0.62. The annual ratio of soil loss for conventional-till plots with grass hedges to without hedges was 0.13. Averaged over all plots (with and without grass hedges), no-till plots had 86% less soil loss than conventional-till plots. No-till plots without grass hedges had 90% less soil loss than conventional-till plots without grass hedges. Grass hedges effectively reduced soil loss on erosion plots with similar cropping practices as compared to plots without hedges. Along with the reduced soil losses from no-till system as compared to conventional-till system, the no-till ultra-narrow row cotton system resulted in an average 0.2 t ha −1 yield increase as compared to the conventional-till system. Reduced soil loss and increased crop yield are both positive factors that the user should consider when adopting this cotton system. Other studies of contoured grass hedges on field-sized areas are being conducted to determine their applicability on larger areas with greater concentrations of runoff.

Nitrogen Fertilization and Yield of Cotton in Ultra‐Narrow and Conventional Row Spacings

Nitrogen fertilizer requirements of ultra‐narrow row (UNR) cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) are not well established, and lint yield of UNR relative to conventional‐row (CR) cotton has been variable. Objectives of this study were to compare UNR and CR N requirements based on lint yield, fiber quality, and plant architecture, and to compare the yield potential of UNR and CR cotton. The location was the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Farm, Burleson County, TX. Treatments were N fertilizer rates of 0, 50, 101, and 151 kg ha−1 and row spacings of 19, 38 (both UNR), and 76 cm (CR). By design, per‐hectare plant populations were greatest in 19‐ and least in 76‐cm row spacings. Plots were hand harvested. Reductions in row spacing decreased plant height, main stem nodes plant−1, and subset (first position bolls at nodes 6–10) individual boll weight. Greater N increased plant height, main stem nodes plant−1, and both whole‐plant and subset individual boll weight. Lint percentage was increased by reduction in row spacing and not affected by N. Treatment effects on fiber quality were limited. Lint yield did not differ among row spacings. Significant increases in lint yield occurred with each increase in N, suggesting that the optimal N rate was not surpassed. Nitrogen by row spacing interaction on lint yield was not significant, implying a similar response of each row spacing to N over the fertilizer rates tested. The N fertilizer requirements of UNR do not appear to be lower than those of CR cotton.

Response of Ultra–Narrow and Conventional Spaced Cotton to Variable Nitrogen Rates

Insufficient nitrogen (N) uptake in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) has been shown to delay maturity and decrease lint yields, while excessive amounts will cause a host of disadvantages, ranging from increased insect damage to defoliation difficulties. Proper nitrogen fertilization rates are therefore essential to maximizing lint production while minimizing input costs. This test was designed to determine if ultra–narrow row cotton (UNRC) has similar nitrogen requirements as conventional row cotton (CRC). Two sites, one in peanuts and the other fallow the previous growing season, and four nitrogen rates (45, 67, 90, and 112 kg N ha−1) were used to compare soil fertility and nitrogen effects on petiole nitrate concentrations, lint yields, and ginning percentages. Although petiole nitrate concentrations between early and peak bloom were lower in ultra–narrow row cotton with 45 and 67 kg N ha−1, there was no correlation between petiole nitrate concentrations and lint yield. Conventional spacing receiving 67 kg N ha−1 had the highest lint production at both locations, while application of 90 kg N ha−1 produced the highest yields in UNRC at both locations. Ultra–narrow row cotton produced numerically higher yields than conventional row at all nitrogen rates at the location without a previous legume crop, but no significant trend was observed. Ultra–narrow row cotton lint percentages were significantly lower than conventional spacing, independent of nitrogen application rate.

Prickly sida (Sida spinosa L.) and spurge (Euphorbia hyssopifolia L.) response to wide row and ultra narrow row cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) management systems

A 4 year field study was conducted from 1998 to 2001 to evaluate the response of prickly sida (Sida spinosa L.) and hyssop spurge (Euphorbia hyssopifolia L.) growing in either ultra narrow row (UNR) or wide row (WR) cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) management systems. Weeds surviving pre‐ and postemergence herbicide treatments were harvested just prior to defoliation and the morphological characteristics were compared. Prickly sida growth was significantly reduced with regard to the number of main stem nodes, primary, secondary and tertiary branching, number of seed capsules produced and dry weight under UNR compared with WR. However, plant height was not affected by the management system. Spurge growth was significantly reduced with regard to branching and fresh weight but not height. These results show that UNR might suppress weed development by reducing vegetative and reproductive growth of prickly sida and vegetative growth of spurge. The reduction in seed and seed capsule production of prickly sida is likely to reduce its reproductive potential and also diminish the subsequent seed rain and soil seed bank reserves. Thus, a potential benefit of UNR cotton management systems might be to reduce the competitive ability of weeds and decrease seed production.

Effect of Row Width and Nitrogen on Cotton Morphology and Canopy Microclimate

Canopy structure is a function of cultural practices, genetics, and environment; specifically, practices affecting plant row width and soil fertility can change canopy structure. Canopy structure affects canopy microclimate. Canopy microclimate determines the rate of fruit development, pest pressure, and crop response to ambient conditions. The rank growth associated with excess N in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is associated with delay in fruit development and increased boll rot. This study was conducted to determine the effect of ultra narrow row (UNR) planting on canopy microclimate in cotton. Canopy microclimate in UNR cotton (18‐ to 25‐cm row width) and conventional (76‐ to 91‐cm row width) plantings with low N (16.8 kg ha−1 at planting only) or high N (16.8 kg ha−1 at planting and 202 kg ha−1 3 wk after bloom) fertilizer was quantified by monitoring the plant canopy temperature, relative humidity (RH), and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) every 15 min during the growing season. The study was conducted at Quincy, FL, on a Dothan sandy loam soil (fine loamy siliceous, thermic Plinthic Kandiudult) in 2000 and 2001. Plant height and nodes per plant were determined 60, 90, and 120 d after planting (DAP). A split‐plot design was used with row width as the main effect and N rate as subplot. During the hours from 0700 to 1900, temperature was 1 to 2°C higher and RH 3 to 7% lower in the conventional vs. the UNR plantings. In general, N and row width effects did not have as great an impact on canopy microclimate as did plant height. In 2001, when correlations were significant, as plant height increased to 1 m, canopy temperature during the hours of 0700 to 1900 on average decreased from 33 to 25°C, RH increased from 55 to 85%, and VPD decreased from 0.16 kPa to less than 0.08 kPa. In 2002, plants grew much faster and correlations of microclimate and plant height were not observed. Plant height under typical production conditions had more of an effect on canopy microclimate than did plant density or N treatment.

Cover Crop, Tillage, and N Rate Effects on Cotton Grown in Ultra-Narrow Rows

There has been recent renewed interest in growing cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in ultra-narrow rows (10 inch wide row spacing). Residue management information is needed for this cotton production system. The objective of this field study was to determine the effect of winter cover, tillage, and N rate on plant stands, yield, and fiber properties of cotton grown in 7.5-inch row widths. Field experiments were conducted near Auburn, AL [Compass loamy sand (coarse-loamy, siliceous, subactive, thermic Plinthic Paleudult)] and near Florence, SC [Wagram sand (loamy, siliceous, thermic Arenic Paleudult)] in 1996 and 1997. Treatments were winter cover (cereal, legume, and fallow), tillage (conventional and conservation) and N rate (0, 40, 80, and 120 lb N per acre). Averaged over tillage and N rates, cotton stands following the legumes were 10% and 25% lower than following the fallow and cereal winter covers at Auburn and Florence, respectively. Stands tended to be lower for conservation tillage than for conventional, though differences between tillage systems were only significant in 1997 at Auburn. Tillage did not have a big impact on yield at either location. The response of cotton to N was cover crop specific. The greatest response to N occurred following the cereal cover crop at both locations and the smallest response occurred following the legume. Treatments did not substantially affect fiber quality. These data suggest that seeding rates for UNR cotton on these soils should be 15 to 20% above desired stands with conventional tillage and 20 to 25% above desired stands with conservation tillage. Nitrogen fertilizer application rates should be those recommended for wide-row production systems.

Overview of Ultra Narrow Row Cotton

Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences EducationVolume 31, Issue 1 p. 70-72 Third Place Student Essay Overview of Ultra Narrow Row Cotton Jeff Lentz, Corresponding Author Jeff Lentz jms@mail.pss.okstate.edu c/o J. Shaver, Dep. of Plant and Soil Science, 368 Ag. Hall, Oklahoma State Univ., Stillwater, OK, 74074Search for more papers by this author Jeff Lentz, Corresponding Author Jeff Lentz jms@mail.pss.okstate.edu c/o J. Shaver, Dep. of Plant and Soil Science, 368 Ag. Hall, Oklahoma State Univ., Stillwater, OK, 74074Search for more papers by this author First published: 2002 https://doi.org/10.2134/jnrlse.2002.0070AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume31, Issue12002Pages 70-72 RelatedInformation

Broadleaf Weed Control in Ultra Narrow Row Bromoxynil-Resistant Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)1

A field experiment was conducted over 2 yr to study efficacy of bromoxynil mixtures with pyrithiobac or MSMA applied postemergence (POST) with and without fluometuron or fluometuron plus pendimethalin preemergence (PRE) for control of broadleaf weeds in ultra narrow row bromoxynil-resistant cotton in the Mississippi Delta. Bromoxynil applied POST (single or sequential) provided variable control of common purslane (<9%), sicklepod (<35%), Palmer amaranth (<46%), prickly sida (>75%), hyssop spurge (>79%), hemp sesbania (>96%), and pitted morningglory (100%) at 4 wk after early POST (WAT). Broadleaf weed control increased when PRE herbicides were followed by bromoxynil or bromoxynil plus pyrithiobac or MSMA POST. Weed control generally decreased at harvest compared to 4 WAT, and the decrease was greater in bromoxynil POST-only programs compared to bromoxynil POST following PRE programs. Seed cotton yield with bromoxynil POST-only programs was lower (400 to 2,810 kg/ha) compared to bromoxynil POST programs following PRE herbicides (2,150 to 3,720 kg/ha). Early-season weed interference and variable control of weeds in bromoxynil POST-only programs resulted in greater cotton stand reduction and lower open bolls per plant compared to bromoxynil POST programs following PRE herbicides.Nomenclature: Bromoxynil; fluometuron; MSMA; pendimethalin; pyrithiobac; common purslane, Portulaca oleracea L. #3 POROL; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. ‘BXN 47’; hemp sesbania, Sesbania exaltata (Raf.) Rydb. ex A. W. Hill # SEBEX; hyssop spurge, Euphorbia hyssopifolia L. # EPHHS; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. # AMAPA; pitted morningglory, Ipomoea lacunosa L. # IPOLA; prickly sida, Sida spinosa L. # SIDSP; sicklepod, Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby # CASOB.Additional index word: Transgenic cotton.Abbreviations: EPOST, early postemergence; fb, followed by; LPOST, late postemergence; POST, postemergence; PRE, preemergence; UNR, ultra narrow row; WAT, weeks after EPOST application.

THREE–YEAR COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL AND ULTRA NARROW ROW COTTON PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

The introduction of transgenic cultivars, with resistance to certain herbicides has greatly increased interest in acotton production system commonly referred to as ultra narrow row. A threeyear study designed to evaluate this system wasconducted at the University of Arkansas Northeast Research and Extension Center at Keiser from 1995 through 1997. Thestudy compared cotton grown in 19cm rows and harvested with a stripper (ultra narrow row) to cotton produced in 97cmrows and harvested with a spindle picker (conventional). The plants in the ultra narrow row system were shorter than in theconventional system. Higher seed cotton yields were observed for the ultra narrow row system two of the three years, but lintyield was higher in only one year due to lower gin turnout. Several of the High Volume Instrument (HVI) fiber properties ofthe commercially ginned lint varied among the three years, but only micronaire was significantly affected by the productionsystem, consistently lower for the ultra narrow row cotton. Advanced Fiber Information System (AFIS) analysis of thecommercially ginned lint indicated more visible foreign matter, higher short fiber content, and higher immature fiber contentwith the ultra narrow row system. In addition, the lint from the ultra narrow row system contained more trash and dust thanfrom conventionally produced cotton. Fixed costs (equipment) were lower for the ultra narrow row system, but higher seedand seed treatment costs made overall production costs higher. Breakeven prices for both systems were below the Arkansasseason average price two of the three years, suggesting a potential for profit.

COMPARISON OF ULTRA–NARROW ROW AND CONVENTIONALLY GROWN COTTONS

An experiment involving ultranarrow row and conventionally grown cottons was performed during the 1998 cropyear. Fiber properties, yarn properties, and processing performance in the Pilot Spinning Laboratory were studied todetermine if these two growing methods result in significantly different cottons with respect to properties important in textileutilization. Nine farms participated in the experiment, each planting a selected variety in both conventional and ultranarrowrows. The conventionally grown cottons were ginned using standard procedures for spindleharvested cotton. Gin cleaningwas increased for the ultranarrow row cottons, which were stripperharvested, to produce grades similar to theconventionally grown cottons. Analysis of the experimental results indicates that differences exist between ultranarrow rowand conventionally grown cottons; however, the differences were likely influenced by the gin machinery sequences used. Thequality measurements normally used in marketing and utilization account for most of the differences observed in yarn andprocessing quality.

Weed Management in Ultra Narrow Row Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)1

Abstract: New weed management tools and growth regulators make production of ultra narrow row (UNR) cotton possible. Weed control, cotton yield, fiber quality, and net returns were compared in UNR bromoxynil-resistant, glyphosate-resistant, and nontransgenic cotton. Weeds included broadleaf signalgrass, carpetweed, common cocklebur, common lambsquarters, common ragweed, goosegrass, jimsonweed, large crabgrass, Palmer amaranth, pitted morningglory, prickly sida, sicklepod, smooth pigweed, and tall morningglory. Pendimethalin preplant incorporated (PPI) in conventional-tillage or preemergence (PRE) in no-till systems plus fluometuron PRE did not adequately control many of these weeds. Pyrithiobac plus MSMA early postemergence (POST) often was more effective than pyrithiobac alone. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by pyrithiobac plus MSMA early POST controlled sicklepod 82%, goosegrass 89%, Palmer amaranth 92%, and the other species at least 95% late season. Pyrithiobac at mid-POST did not...

Economics of Ultranarrow Row Planting for Hard Red Winter Wheat Production in Oklahoma

Physiologically optimal hard red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plant spacing is achieved by equalizing between-row and average-within-row seed placement distances. Commercial grain drills that are used on most farms in Oklahoma have row spacings that are too wide for physiologically efficient seeding. This study was conducted to determine if an ultranarrow row (UNR) grain drill with 3-in. row spacing would be economical for farmers. A representative farm approach was used to estimate the economic consequences. Estimates were computed for farm sizes of 300 and 1000 acres, for both conventional and UNR production systems. The minimum yield increase required to offset the estimated increase in the cost of the UNR drill, and the maximum UNR drill price given the anticipated yield increase were computed. At the budgeted prices and input levels, the UNR drill would increase returns by $6.79/acre for the 1000-acre farm and $6.03/acre for the 300-acre farm. Yield increases of 1.40 and 1.08 bu/acre would be required for the UNR system to break-even with the conventional drill system for the 300- and 1000-acre farms, respectively. Given the estimated yield increase of 4 bu/acre, the 300-acre farm could pay $28 469 for a 13-ft UNR drill, and the 1000-acre farm could pay $68 997 for a 26-ft UNR drill, for the UNR system to break-even with the conventional drill system. The UNR technology appears to be a promising economical alternative for hard red winter wheat producers in the Southern Plains.

Response of Ultra-Narrow Row Cotton to Telone II in Root-Knot and Reniform Infested Fields

This document is ENY-677, one of a series of the Department of Entomology and Nematology, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Publication Date: February 2003.&#x0D; https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in466