UK Millennium Cohort Study Research Articles

In-class ‘ability’-grouping, teacher judgements and children’s mathematics self-concept: evidence from primary-aged girls and boys in the UK Millennium Cohort Study

ABSTRACT This paper analyses English Millennium Cohort Study data (N = 4463). It examines two respective predictors of children’s maths self-concept at age 11: earlier in-class maths ‘ability’ group and earlier teacher judgements of children’s maths ‘ability/attainment’ (both at age seven). It also investigates differential associations by maths cognitive test score at seven (which proxies maths skill), and by gender. In the sample overall, controlling for numerous potential confounders including maths score, bottom-grouped children and children judged ‘below average’ are much more likely to have later negative maths self-concept. Beneath this aggregate lies variation by gender. All highest ‘ability’-grouped boys have very low chances of negative self-concept, regardless of maths score – but low-scoring girls placed in the highest group have heightened chances of thinking subsequently they are not good at maths. Additionally, the association between negative teacher judgement and negative self-concept is more pervasive for girls.

Sex, ethnic and socioeconomic inequalities and trajectories in child and adolescent mental health in Australia and the UK: findings from national prospective longitudinal studies.

This study investigates the sex, ethnic and socioeconomic inequalities in emotional difficulties over childhood and adolescence using longitudinal cohort studies in the UK and Australia. Estimating cross-national differences contributes to understanding of the consistency of inequalities in mental health across contexts. Data from 19,748 participants in two contemporary representative samples in Australia (Growing Up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, n=4,975) and UK (Millennium Cohort Study, n=14,773) were used. Emotional difficulties were assessed using the parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at ages 4/5, 6/7, 11/12 and 14/15years and the self-reported Short Moods and Feelings Questionnaire at age 14/15. Latent Growth Curve Modelling was used to examine mental health over time. There were significant increases in emotional difficulties in both countries over time. Emotional difficulties were higher in Australian children at all ages. The gender gap in self-reported depressive symptoms at age 14/15 was larger in the UK (8% of UK and 13% of Australian boys were above the depression cut-off, compared with 23% of girls). Ethnic minority children had higher emotional difficulties at age 4/5years in both countries, but over time this difference was no longer observed in Australia. In the UK, this reversed whereby at ages 11/12 and 14/15 ethnic minority children had lower symptoms than their White majority peers. Socioeconomic differences were more marked based on parent education and employment status in Australia and by parent income in the UK. UK children, children from White majority ethnicity and girls evidenced steeper worsening of symptoms from age 4/5 to 14/15 years. Even in two fairly similar countries (i.e. English-speaking, high-income, industrialised), the observed patterns of inequalities in mental health symptoms based on sociodemographics are not the same. Understanding country and context-specific drivers of different inequalities provides important insights to help reduce disparities in child and adolescent mental health.

Lifelong exposure to air pollution and cognitive development in young children: the UK Millennium Cohort Study

Evidence about the impact of air pollution on cognitive development of children has been growing but remains inconclusive. To investigate the association of air pollution exposure and the cognitive development of children in the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of 13 058–14 614 singleton births, 2000–2002, analysed at age 3, 5 and 7 years for associations between exposure from birth to selected air pollutants and cognitive scores for: School Readiness, Naming Vocabulary (age 3 and 5), Picture Similarity, Pattern Construction (age 5 and 7), Number Skills and Word Reading. Multivariable regression models took account of design stratum, clustering and sampling and attrition weights with adjustment for major risk factors, including age, gender, ethnicity, region, household income, parents’ education, language, siblings and second-hand tobacco smoke. In fully adjusted models, no associations were observed between pollutant exposures and cognitive scores at age 3. At age 5, particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) were associated with lower scores for Naming Vocabulary but no other outcome except for SO2 and Picture Similarity. At age 7, PM2.5, PM10 and NO2 were associated with lower scores for Pattern Construction, SO2 with lower Number Skills and SO2 and ozone with poorer Word Reading scores, but PM2.5, PM10 and NO2 were associated with higher Word Reading scores. Adverse effects of air pollutants represented a deficit of up to around four percentile points in Naming Vocabulary at age 5 for an interquartile range increase in pollutant concentration, which is smaller than the impact of various social determinants of cognitive development. In a study of multiple pollutants and outcomes, we found mixed evidence from this UK-wide cohort study for association between lifetime exposure to air pollutants and cognitive development to age 7 years.

Mid-adolescent ethnic variations in overweight prevalence in the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

BackgroundThere are stark ethnic inequalities in the prevalence of UK childhood obesity. However, data on adolescent overweight in different ethnic groups are limited. This study assessed ethnic inequalities in overweight prevalence during mid-adolescence using body mass index (BMI) and explored the contribution of socioeconomic and behavioural factors.MethodsWe analyzed data from 10 500 adolescents aged between 13 and 15 years who participated in sweep six of the Millennium Cohort Study. Ethnic inequalities in overweight and mean BMI were assessed using multiple regression models. Results were stratified by sex and adjusted for socioeconomic and behavioural factors.ResultsBlack Caribbean males had significantly higher BMI than White males after full adjustment [excess BMI 2.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.70–5.19] and were over three times more likely to be overweight [odds ratio (OR): 3.32, 95% CI 1.95–5.66]. Black Africans females had significantly higher BMI compared with White females (excess BMI 1.86, 95% CI 0.89–2.83; OR for overweight 2.74, 95% CI 1.64–4.56), while Indian females had significantly lower BMI compared with White females (reduced BMI −0.73, 95% CI −1.37 to −0.09). Socioeconomic and behavioural factors often considered to be associated with overweight were more prevalent in some ethnic minority groups (lower socioeconomic position, lack of breakfast consumption, low fruit and vegetable intake, high sugar-sweetened beverage and fast-food consumption, and infrequent physical activity), but adjustment for these factors did not fully explain ethnic differences in overweight/BMI.ConclusionEthnic inequalities in overweight prevalence are evident in mid-adolescence and vary according to sex. Differences in overweight/BMI between ethnic groups were not fully accounted for by socioeconomic or behavioural factors.

Adolescent psychopathological profiles and the outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic: Longitudinal findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

BackgroundPublic health measures to contain the spread of COVID-19 have resulted in adverse effects, including high level of psychological distress, anxiety, and depression. AimsThis study explored adolescent psychopathological profiles at age 17, and their role in predicting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic at age 19. MethodsThe analyses used a sample of 904 participants (mean age = 19.17 years) from the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) sweep 7 who completed the mental health questions from January 2018 to March 2019 (mean age = 17.18 years) and the COVID-19 Survey in May 2020. Adolescent psychopathological profiles were identified by means of latent class analysis. ResultsFour psychopathological profiles were identified: “low-symptom class” (60.17% of participants), “high-symptom class” (23.01% of participants), “substance/behavioural addictions class” (12.03% of participants), and “emotion-dysregulation class” (4.79% of participants). Adolescents in the high-symptom and emotional-dysregulation classes had the worst outcome during the lockdown. Specifically, they experienced more stress, conflict and loneliness, and lower levels of perceived social support than adolescents in the other psychopathological classes. Adolescents in the emotional-dysregulation class also consumed more alcohol and had worse financial situation during the lockdown compared to pre- lockdown period. ConclusionAdolescent psychopathological profiles predicted mental health impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak.

Developmental trajectories of ADHD symptoms in a large population-representative longitudinal study.

Previous research has suggested that there is substantial heterogeneity in the developmental trajectories of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Sometimes, qualitative distinctions between trajectories with different ages of onset and/or patterns of remission are made; however, little is known about the predictors and broader clinical meaningfulness of these candidate 'developmental subtypes' of ADHD symptoms. We applied latent class growth analysis to data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS; N = 11 316; ages 3, 5, 7, 11 and 14) to evaluate whether developmental trajectories of ADHD symptoms differing in early life predictors could be identified. Our optimal model included six trajectory groups, labelled unaffected (34.9% of the sample), mildly affected (24.1%), subclinical remitting (12.8%), pre-school onset partially remitting (14.1%), developmentally increasing (7.6%) and pre-school onset persistent (6.4%). Factors such as gender, conduct problems, cognitive ability, maternal education, premature birth, peer problems and school readiness scores differentiated between specific ADHD symptom trajectories. Taken together, our findings provide preliminary evidence that distinguishing different trajectories of ADHD symptoms could be clinically informative.

Pre-school childcare and inequalities in child development.

Centre-based childcare may benefit pre-school children and alleviate inequalities in early childhood development, but evidence on socio-emotional and physical health outcomes is limited. Data were from the UK Millennium Cohort Study (n = 14,376). Inverse-probability weighting was used to estimate confounder-adjusted population-average effects of centre and non-centre-based childcare (compared to parental care only) between ages 26–31 months on (age 3): internalising and externalising symptoms, pro-social behaviour, independence, emotional dysregulation, vocabulary, school readiness, and body mass index. To assess impacts on inequalities, controlled direct effects of low parental education and lone parenthood on all outcomes were estimated under two hypothetical scenarios: 1) universal take-up of centre-based childcare; and 2) parental care only. On average, non-centre based childcare improved vocabulary and centre-based care improved school readiness, with little evidence of other benefits. However, socio-economic inequalities were observed for all outcomes and were attenuated in scenario 1 (universal take-up). For example, inequalities in externalising symptoms (according to low parental education) were reduced from a confounder-adjusted standard deviation difference of 7.8 (95% confidence intervals: 6.7–8.8), to 1.7 (0.6–2.7). Inequalities by parental education in scenario 2 (parental care only) were wider than in scenario 1 for externalising symptoms (at 3.4; 2.4–4.4), and for emotional dysregulation and school readiness. Inequalities by lone parenthood, which were smaller, fell in scenario 1, and fell further in scenario 2. Universal access to centre-based pre-school care may alleviate inequalities, while restricted access (e.g. during lockdown for a pandemic such as Covid-19) may widen some inequalities in socioemotional and cognitive development.

The cognitive development from childhood to adolescence of low birthweight children born after medically assisted reproduction-a UK longitudinal cohort study.

BackgroundPrevious research has documented that children conceived through medically assisted reproduction (MAR) are at increased risk of poor birth outcomes, such as low birthweight (LBW), which are risk factors for stunted longer-term cognitive development. However, parents who undergo MAR to conceive have, on average, advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds which could compensate for the negative effects of being born LBW. Previous studies have not analysed whether the negative effects of LBW are attenuated among MAR conceived children.MethodsWe draw on the UK Millennium Cohort Study (sweeps 1–6) which contains a sub-sample of (N = 396) MAR-conceived children. The dependent variable measures cognitive ability at around ages 3, 5, 7, 11 and 14. We examine the cognitive development of four groups of children: MAR-conceived low birthweight (MAR LBW); MAR-conceived non-low birthweight (MAR NLBW); naturally conceived low birthweight (NC LBW); naturally conceived non-low birthweight (NC NLBW). We estimate the two following linear regression models for each sweep: (i) a baseline model to examine the unadjusted association between cognitive development and low birthweight by mode of conception; and (ii) a model adjusted by socio-demographic family characteristics.ResultsIn baseline models, MAR LBW children [age 3: β = 0.021, 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.198, 0.241; age 5: β = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.009, 0.418; age 7: β = 0.163, 95% CI: -0.148, 0.474; age 11: β = 0.003, 95% CI: -0.318, 0.325; age 14: β = 0.156, 95% CI: -0.205, 0.517], on average perform similarly in cognitive ability relative to NC NLBW at all ages, and display higher cognitive scores than NC LBW children until age 7. When we account for family characteristics, differences are largely attenuated and become close to zero at age 14.ConclusionsDespite the higher incidence of LBW among MAR compared with NC children, they do not seem to experience any disadvantage in their cognitive development compared with naturally conceived children. This finding is likely explained by the fact that, on average, MAR children are born to socioeconomically advantaged parents.

The cognitive development from childhood to adolescence of low birthweight children born after medically assisted reproduction-a UK longitudinal cohort study.

BackgroundPrevious research has documented that children conceived through medically assisted reproduction (MAR) are at increased risk of poor birth outcomes, such as low birthweight (LBW), which are risk factors for stunted longer-term cognitive development. However, parents who undergo MAR to conceive have, on average, advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds which could compensate for the negative effects of being born LBW. Previous studies have not analysed whether the negative effects of LBW are attenuated among MAR conceived children.MethodsWe draw on the UK Millennium Cohort Study (sweeps 1–6) which contains a sub-sample of (N = 396) MAR-conceived children. The dependent variable measures cognitive ability at around ages 3, 5, 7, 11 and 14. We examine the cognitive development of four groups of children: MAR-conceived low birthweight (MAR LBW); MAR-conceived non-low birthweight (MAR NLBW); naturally conceived low birthweight (NC LBW); naturally conceived non-low birthweight (NC NLBW). We estimate the two following linear regression models for each sweep: (i) a baseline model to examine the unadjusted association between cognitive development and low birthweight by mode of conception; and (ii) a model adjusted by socio-demographic family characteristics.ResultsIn baseline models, MAR LBW children [age 3: β = 0.021, 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.198, 0.241; age 5: β = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.009, 0.418; age 7: β = 0.163, 95% CI: -0.148, 0.474; age 11: β = 0.003, 95% CI: -0.318, 0.325; age 14: β = 0.156, 95% CI: -0.205, 0.517], on average perform similarly in cognitive ability relative to NC NLBW at all ages, and display higher cognitive scores than NC LBW children until age 7. When we account for family characteristics, differences are largely attenuated and become close to zero at age 14.ConclusionsDespite the higher incidence of LBW among MAR compared with NC children, they do not seem to experience any disadvantage in their cognitive development compared with naturally conceived children. This finding is likely explained by the fact that, on average, MAR children are born to socioeconomically advantaged parents.

Gestational age on trajectories of social competence difficulties into adolescence

ObjectivesTo examine if gestational age groups predict the development of social competence difficulties (SCDs) from childhood into mid-adolescence and to assess the mediation by maternal psychological distress during infancy on...

Adverse childhood experiences and trajectories of internalizing, externalizing, and prosocial behaviors from childhood to adolescence

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs) predict poorer mental health across the life course but most of the extant research has employed ACE scores or individual adversities using retrospective data. ObjectivesTo study the impact of ACEs on later mental health using not only ACEs scores and individual ACEs, but also latent class analysis (LCA), which respects the clustering of adversities. Participants and setting8823 members from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. MethodsWe investigated the impact of prospectively reported ACEs on mental health trajectories derived using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at age 3, 5, 7, 11 and 14. Associations between LCA-derived ACE clusters, ACE scores, individual ACEs and mental health trajectories were tested using linear mixed effects models. ResultsWith statistical significance set at 5% level, ACE scores showed a graded association with internalizing (ACE score of 1: β = 0.057; ACE score of 2: β = 0.108; ACE score of 3: β = 0.202), externalizing (ACE score of 1: β = 0.142; ACE score of 2: β = 0.299; ACE score of 3: β = 0.415) and prosocial behaviors (ACE score of 1: β=-0.019; ACE score of 2: β=-0.042; ACE score of 3: β=-0.059). Harsh parenting and physical punishment were particularly strongly associated with externalizing (β = 0.270 and β = 0.256) and negatively associated with prosocial behaviors (β=-0.046 and β=-0.058). Parental discord and parental depression showed the strongest associations with internalizing problems (β = 0.125 and β = 0.113). LCA did not discriminate ACE clusters in this dataset. ConclusionsACEs have an important impact on mental health from childhood to adolescence. ACEs score approach yielded useful results, which were further enhanced by exploring individual ACEs.

Medically assisted reproduction and parent–child relationships during adolescence: evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

STUDY QUESTIONDo the parent–child relationships of adolescents born after medically assisted reproduction (MAR) using the parents’ own gametes differ from those of adolescents born after natural conception (NC)?SUMMARY ANSWERMAR and NC families have similar parent–child relationships in terms of closeness and conflict frequency, except that MAR mothers report being closer to their children than NC mothers.WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADYPrior work on parent–child relationships during childhood has reported mixed findings. While some studies have documented no differences between MAR and NC families, others have shown that MAR families have greater levels of warmth and positive feelings than NC families. Evidence on parent–child relationships during the adolescent period is generally positive but is limited because of the small number of existing studies and the reliance on small samples.STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATIONThis work is based on the UK Millennium Cohort Study, whose study members were born in 2000–2002. The analyses focused on Sweep 6 which was collected when cohort members were around 14 years old. We also relied on variables collected in Sweep 1, when cohort members were aged around 9 months, to account for characteristics that could confound or mediate the relationship between MAR and our outcomes. The attrition rate between Sweeps 1 and 6 was 36.7%.PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODSThe final sample consisted of 10 233 cohort members, 320 of whom were conceived with the help of MAR (3.1%). A total of six dependent variables were used to measure, when the cohort members were around 14 years old, levels of parent–child closeness and conflict, reported separately by the mother, the father and the cohort member. Linear models were used to analyse the association between parent–child relationships before and after adjustment for socio-demographic characteristics and mental health.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCESweep 6 achieved a response rate of 76.3% of the eligible sample. The results show that, on average, MAR and NC families had similar parent–child relationships in terms of closeness and conflict frequency. The only difference was that MAR mothers reported being closer to their children than NC mothers both before (β = 0.149, P < 0.05) and after (β = 0.102, P < 0.1) adjustment for family socio-demographic characteristics and mental health.LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTIONThe outcome variables are self-reported by each of the respondents and could be subject to social desirability bias. Second, some parents may have not reported they conceived through donor insemination, which could result in the analytical sample including a small subset of children who were not genetically related to their parents. Third, the data did not include information about whether the children were aware of their conception mode, since the Millennium Cohort Study did not collect information on MAR disclosure. Moreover, they did not allow us to study other aspects of parent–child relationships. Finally, as we observed parent–child relationships at only one moment in time; we were unable to test whether they changed over time.WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGSThe results suggest that the difficulties and the stress parents underwent to conceive through MAR did not translate into more difficult parent–child relationships during adolescence. Given the increasing number of children conceived via MAR, the finding that MAR and NC families had similar parent–child relationships in terms of closeness and conflict frequency is reassuring.STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)This work was supported by European Research Council agreement n. 803959 (MARTE to A.G.). The authors declare no competing interests.TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERn/a

Impact of Poverty and Family Adversity on Adolescent Health: A Multi-Trajectory Analysis Using the UK Millennium Cohort Study

Background: Children exposed to poverty and family adversities including domestic violence, parental mental ill health and parental alcohol misuse may experience poor outcomes across the life course. However, the complex interrelationships between these exposures in childhood are unclear. We therefore assessed the clustering of trajectories of household poverty and family adversities and their impacts on adolescent health outcomes. Methods: We used longitudinal data from the UK Millennium Cohort study on 11564 children followed to age 14 years. Family adversities included parent reported domestic violence and abuse, mental ill health and frequent alcohol use. We used a group-based multi-trajectory cluster model to identify trajectories of poverty and family adversity for children. We assessed associations of these trajectories with child physical, mental and behavioural outcomes at age 14 years using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for confounders. Findings: Six trajectories were identified: low poverty and family adversity (43·2%), persistent parental alcohol use (7·7%), persistent domestic violence and abuse (3·4%), persistent parental mental ill health (11·9%), persistent poverty (22·6%) and persistent poverty and parental mental ill health (11·1%). Compared with children exposed to low poverty and adversity, children in the persistent adversity trajectory groups experienced worse outcomes; those exposed to persistent parental mental ill health and poverty were particularly at increased risk of socioemotional behavioural problems (adjusted odds ratio 6·4; 95% CI 5·0 – 8·3), cognitive disability (aOR 2·1; CI 1·5 – 2·8), drug experimentation (aOR 2·8; CI 1·8 – 4·2) and obesity (aOR 1·8; CI 1·3 – 2·5). Interpretation: In a contemporary UK cohort, persistent poverty and/or persistent parental mental ill health affects over four in ten children. The combination of both affects one in ten children and is strongly associated with adverse child outcomes, particularly poor child mental health. Funding Information: This work was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Policy Research Programme (ORACLE: OveRcoming Adverse ChiLdhood Experiences, Grant reference number NIHR200717); and the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Applied Research Collaboration South London (NIHR ARC South London) at King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. DTR is supported by the NIHR School for Public Health Research, the NIHR Public Health Policy Research and by the Medical Research Council (MRC) on a Clinician Scientist Fellowship (MR/P008577/1). VSS is supported by the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare (FORTE) [2016-07148; 2020-00274]. Professors Kaner and Howard are supported by NIHR Senior Investigator awards and Prof Kaner is Director of the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration for the North East and North Cumbria. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR, MRC or FORTE. Declaration of Interests: All authors declare no competing interests. Ethics Approval Statement: Ethical approval for each wave of the MCS was granted by NHS Multicenter Research Ethics Committees. No further ethical approval was required for this secondary analysis of MCS data.

Reciprocal associations of adolescent perceptions of neighbourhood safety and problem behaviour

Adolescents who perceive their neighbourhoods as unsafe are more likely to display emotional and behavioural problems. But, little is known about whether perceptions of safety and problem behaviour influence each other. This study explored the reciprocal relationships between perceptions of neighbourhood safety and emotional and behavioural problems in adolescence in a general population sample. It also explored two mediators of these associations (personal victimisation and risky behaviour). Data were analysed on 9,200 adolescents at ages 11 and 14 participating in the UK's Millennium Cohort Study. Bidirectional associations were found between perceptions of safety and all domains of problem behaviour. Personal victimisation partially mediated the reciprocal relationships between neighbourhood safety and all problem domains. Risky behaviour partially mediated some of these paths. The findings suggest that, in adolescence, perceived neighbourhood safety and emotional and behavioural problems mutually influence each other, partly due to experiences of victimisation and risky behaviour.

The bilingual gap in children's language, emotional, and pro-social development

Abstract In this paper we examine whether – conditional on other child endowments and family inputs – bilingual children achieve different language, emotional, and pro-social developmental outcomes. Our data, which allow us to analyze children's development in a dynamic framework, are extracted from the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS). We model the development production functions for bilingual children using cumulative value-added specifications, which account for parental investments and children's own ability. Analysis based on child age confirms that bilingual children initially have worse language skills than their monolingual peers. The commencement of schooling appears to attenuate these differences, and by age seven, bilingual children have a developmental advantage. We find evidence of a positive relationship between bilingualism and some aspects of emotional development, and it is mainly boys who appear to benefit from their bilingual background.

M-Quantile Regression for Multivariate Longitudinal Data with an Application to the Millennium Cohort Study

Abstract Motivated by the analysis of data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study on emotional and behavioural disorders, we develop an M-quantile regression model for multivariate longitudinal responses. M-quantile regression is an appealing alternative to standard regression models; it combines features of quantile and expectile regression and it may produce a detailed picture of the conditional response variable distribution, while ensuring robustness to outlying data. As we deal with multivariate data, we need to specify what it is meant by M-quantile in this context, and how the structure of dependence between univariate profiles may be accounted for. Here, we consider univariate (conditional) M-quantile regression models with outcome-specific random effects for each outcome. Dependence between outcomes is introduced by assuming that the random effects in the univariate models are dependent. The multivariate distribution of the random effects is left unspecified and estimated from the observed data. Adopting this approach, we are able to model dependence both within and between outcomes. We further discuss a suitable model parameterisation to account for potential endogeneity of the observed covariates. An extended EM algorithm is defined to derive estimates under a maximum likelihood approach.

Spatial working memory in young adolescents with different childhood trajectories of internalizing, conduct and hyperactivity/inattention problems.

In children, internalizing and externalizing problems impact on learning. However, there is limited research on the specific impact of such problems on spatial working memory (SWM), strongly related to cognitive ability and children's learning. We explored distinct trajectories of internalizing problems and externalizing problems (conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention) in a large general-population sample of children followed from age 3 to age 11years. We then assessed their role in SWM performance at age 11years. Data were drawn from the UK's Millennium Cohort Study. Our analytic sample was children with data on SWM at age 11years (N=12,589). There were two stages of data analysis. Trajectory group membership was firstly estimated by group-based trajectory modelling for internalizing problems, conduct problems, and hyperactivity/inattention at ages 3-11years. Multiple regression then assessed the relationship between SWM at age 11years and trajectory group membership after accounting for confounders. Trajectories of internalizing, conduct, and hyperactivity/inattention symptoms across ages 3 to 11years were related to SWM at age 11years, even after controlling for confounding variables. For each of the three symptom domains, poor SWM was most consistently found in children with chronically high levels of symptoms. In general, atypical patterns of internalizing problems, conduct problems, and hyperactivity/inattention in childhood were related to poorer SWM in early adolescence.

Family income matters! Tracking of habitual car use for school journeys and associations with overweight/obesity in UK youth

IntroductionThe aims of this study were to assess associations between car use for school journeys in early childhood and car use for school journeys in later childhood and adolescence, (ii) determine whether an income gradient to habitual car use for school journeys and overweight/obesity exists in the UK, and (iii) assess the extent to which habitual car use for school journeys through childhood and into adolescence is associated with overweight/obesity in adolescence. MethodsData is from sweep three, four, five and six of the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Subjects consisted of 8494 children (4251 girls). Stature and body mass were assessed at age 5 and 14 years and children were categorised as normal weight or overweight/obesity. Commute mode to and from school was parent/carer reported at age 5, 7, 11 and 14 years and habitual car use for school journeys was determined. Family income at age 5 years was determined using equivalised household income. Adjusted logistic and multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted. ResultsCar use for school journeys at age 5 was positively associated with car use for school journeys at age 7, 11 and 14 years (p < 0.001). Family income at child age 5 was inversely associated with overweight/obese at age 5 and 14 years and positively associated with habitual car use (p < 0.001). Habitual car use for school journeys was not associated with overweight/obesity at age 14 years. ConclusionsCar use for school journeys in early childhood is positively associated with car use for school journeys in later childhood and adolescence. Children living in the highest income households have the lowest rates of overweight/obesity, and there is an income gradient to habitual car use for school journeys. Habitual car use for school journeys through childhood and into adolescence is not positively associated with overweight/obesity in adolescence.

The Role of Decision-Making in Psychological Wellbeing and Risky Behaviours in Autistic Adolescents Without ADHD: Longitudinal Evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

This study examined the development of decision-making and its association with psychological wellbeing and risky behaviours in adolescents with and without autism. Participants included 270 autistic and 9,713 typically developing adolescents. In both samples, those with a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were excluded. Data came from the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative population-based birth cohort. Decision-making was assessed using the Cambridge Gambling Task at ages 11 and 14. Psychological wellbeing (happiness, self-esteem, depressive symptoms and self-harm) and risky/antisocial behaviours were self-reported at age 14. After adjusting for sex, cognitive ability, spatial working memory, socioeconomic status and pubertal status, autistic adolescents showed comparable quality of decision-making to that of their peers at both ages but also a more deliberative decision-making style as they aged. Only in autistic adolescents was this decision-making style associated with positive outcomes.

Emotional and behavioural pathways to adolescent substance use and antisocial behaviour: results from the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

This study examines the emotional and behavioural pathways to adolescent substance use and antisocial behaviour. Using a sample of 17,223 participants from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, we applied parallel-process growth mixture modelling on emotional and behavioural symptoms in those aged 3-14 and employed latent class analysis to identify patterns of substance use and antisocial behaviours at age 14. We then performed a multinomial regression analysis to explore the association between emotional and behavioural trajectories and patterns of adolescent substance use and antisocial behaviours, including sociodemographic, family, and maternal factors. We found five trajectories of emotional and behavioural symptoms and four classes of adolescence substance use and antisocial behaviour. Children and adolescents in the 'high externalising and internalising' and 'moderate externalising' trajectories were more likely to belong to any problematic behaviour class, especially the 'poly-substance use and antisocial behaviours' class. Inclusion in the 'moderate externalising and internalising (childhood limited)' class was associated with higher odds of belonging to the 'alcohol and tobacco' class. These associations remained significant after adjusting for important sociodemographic and contextual factors, such as maternal substance use, poverty, and parental status. Interventions on adolescent health promotion and risk behaviour prevention need to address the clustering of substance use and antisocial behaviour as well as the significant influence of early and chronic internalising and externalising symptoms on the aetiology of these behaviours.