UK Water Industry Research Articles

Utilising eDNA Methods and Interactive Data Dashboards for Managing Sustainable Drinking Water

Generating rapid, easy-to-interpret community data for drinking reservoirs as a means of tackling water quality management is of increasing demand within the water industry. Taste and odour (T&O) is one of many increasing concerns to water companies worldwide, incurring huge costs as customer complaints accumulate and additional treatment and resource management are required. However, there remains a two-fold issue in addressing T&O management: firstly, predicting the initial onset of a T&O event relies on a highly complex understanding of environmental considerations and their interaction with T&O-related taxa, and secondly, there remains a lag between the notification of a T&O event and the resolution of the issue by reservoir management staff. This is partly due to slow, low-resolution methods of detecting and reliably identifying problem taxa in samples. These methods are unable to provide information on the huge plethora of taxa related to T&O metabolite production and often cannot provide data in a timely enough manner for an opportune management response. This means the water industry is often forced to use a reactive, rather than proactive, approach to water quality monitoring. Here, we present methods for implementing a high-throughput sequencing approach to monitoring drinking reservoirs for water quality and improving the sustainability of water supplies, as well as methods for presenting these data on easy-to-interpret data dashboards that can be updated rapidly as new data are generated. Our methods and dashboarding approaches are currently being trialled and tested within the UK water industry, and so here, we show anonymised examples of those data presentations. We propose that these methods can greatly aid reservoir management teams in their approach to T&O monitoring and can be used to implore more sustainable management pipelines, safeguarding future water sources.

Down-the-drain pathways for fipronil and imidacloprid applied as spot-on parasiticides to dogs: Estimating aquatic pollution

Fipronil and imidacloprid have been widely detected in UK surface waters in recent years, often at concentrations that ecotoxicological studies have shown can harm aquatic life. Down-the-drain (DTD) passage of pet flea and tick treatments are being implicated as an important source, with many of the UK's 22 million cats and dogs receiving routine, year-round preventative doses containing these parasiticides. The UK Water Industry's 3rd Chemical Investigation Programme (UKWIR CIP3) has confirmed wastewater as a major entry pathway for these chemicals into surface waters, but the routes by which they enter the wastewater system remain unclear. We addressed this knowledge gap by conducting the first quantification of DTD emissions from 98 dogs treated with spot-on ectoparasiticides containing fipronil or imidacloprid, through bathing, bed washing and washing of owners' hands. Both chemicals were detected in 100 % of washoff samples, with bathing accounting for the largest emissions per event (up to 16.8 % of applied imidacloprid and 24.5 % of applied fipronil). Modelled to account for the frequency of emitting activities, owner handwashing was identified as the largest source of DTD emissions from the population overall, with handwash emissions occurring for at least 28 days following product application and an estimated 4.9 % of imidacloprid and 3.1 % of fipronil applied in dog spot-ons passing down-the-drain via this route. The normalised daily per capita emissions for all routes combined were 8.7 μg/person/day for imidacloprid and 2.1 μg/person/day for fipronil, equivalent to 20–40 % of the daily per capita load in wastewater, as estimated from UKWIR CIP3 data. Within the current international regulatory framework adhered to by the UK, the environmental exposure of veterinary medicines intended for use in small companion animals is assumed to be low, and DTD pathways are not considered. We recommend a systematic review of regulations and practices to address this overlooked pollution pathway.

A comparison of qPCR and microscopy for the detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium oocysts from drinking water.

Introduction. Cryptosporidium presents one of the main waterborne public health threats due to its resistance to chlorine disinfection and ability to cause large-scale outbreaks. The standard method used in the UK water industry for detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium is based on fluorescence microscopy and is laborious and expensive. Molecular methods such as quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) can be more amenable to streamlining through automation, improving workflows and standardizing procedures.Hypothesis. The null hypothesis was that there was no difference in the detection or enumeration between the standard method and a qPCR.Aim. We aimed to develop and evaluate a qPCR for the detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium in drinking water, and to compare the assay with the standard method used in the UK.Methodology. We first developed and evaluated a qPCR method by incorporating an internal amplification control and calibration curve into a real-time PCR currently used for Cryptosporidium genotyping. Then we compared the qPCR assay with the standard method of immunofluorescent microscopy for the detection and enumeration of 10 and 100 Cryptosporidium oocysts in 10 l of artificially contaminated drinking water.Results. The results demonstrated that detection of Cryptosporidium by this qPCR was reliable at low numbers of oocysts; however, enumeration was less reliable and more variable than immunofluorescence microscopy.Conclusions. Despite these results, qPCR offers practical advantages over microscopy. There is potential for the use of PCR-based methods for Cryptosporidium analysis if parts of the upstream sample preparation are revised, and alternative technologies for enumeration (such as digital PCR) are also explored to improve analytical sensitivity.

Should the UK Water Industry be Renationalised?

With the UK water sector in crisis Jon Excell asks whether it’s time to renationalise this most fundamental utility?

Gazing into the Crystal Ball: A Review of Futures Analysis to Promote Environmental Justice in the UK Water Industry

Water is a vital and multifunctional resource for our society, economy and ecosystems; thus, how water is managed now and into the future has wide-reaching consequences. Sustainable water management and environmental justice therefore become key topics; a discussion of these terms is explored in the context of the UK water industry, which provides the focus for this study. This systematic review explores how considerations of the future have been applied in water research. The literature is reviewed with respect to (1) defining the end goal, (2) the use of futures analysis and (3) possible evaluation methods, including a discussion on the boundaries applied to each of the studies. A growing body of research associated with decision-making applying future scenarios was identified. However, the methods of application varied substantially, with holistic analyses largely lacking. The formulation of methods appears to be specific to the goal that is sought as well as the cultural influence of the region in which the analysis was developed and deployed. This paper presents a case for the visualisation of catchment characteristics and interdependencies to enable transparency in decision-making. This should reflect not only the current system but also a range of potential futures to enable appraisal of impacts.

Automated modelling of urban runoff based on domain knowledge and equation discovery

Modelling tools are widely used to analyse the urban drainage systems and to simulate the effects of future urban development and stormwater control measures. Usually, these tools use only one mathematical model (predetermined by the modeller) at a time to describe a single hydrological process within the urban catchment. When there are alternative mathematical models for describing the same hydrological process, their suitability needs to be investigated separately, which makes the modelling task even more complex, time consuming and open for human errors. Furthermore, models have to be calibrated to achieve a better fit between measured and simulated runoff. Calibration can be performed either manually, by using a trial-and-error approach, or by employing search techniques and parameter optimization tools. To overcome the drawbacks associated with manual selection and calibration of models, automated modelling based on equation discovery was used in this study to a) find the most suitable mathematical model among multiple alternatives for describing every (environmental) process modelled and b) to calibrate the model parameters against measured data. First, knowledge on urban runoff modelling was formalized into a new library of modelling components, compliant with the equation discovery tool ProBMoT (Process Based Modelling Tool). Next, a conceptual model of the experimental urban sub-catchment within the city of Ljubljana, Slovenia, was defined. ProBMoT was used to find the structure and parameters’ values of alternative rainfall-runoff models, according to the defined conceptual model that provide optimal fit against pipe flow measurements. Three alternative methods were used to describe infiltration: the SCS CN method, the Variable UK runoff equation, and the UK Water Industry Research equation. The proposed automated model discovery approach for finding the optimal rainfall-runoff model proved to be very efficient. Nine rainfall-runoff models were created with very good performance. The best performance was achieved by the models that used a combination of two different infiltration methods, i.e. the SCS CN infiltration method for the pervious area and one of the other two infiltration methods for the impervious area.

Modular water treatment systems

Like most global water industries today, the UK's water industry is under pressure to meet new and stricter regulations. Here we find out how modular water treatment systems can provide the industry with solutions to achieve these targets.

Modelling Microplastics in the River Thames: Sources, Sinks and Policy Implications

With widespread, long-term historical use of plastics and the presence of microplastics in a range of new and existing products, there is rising concern about their potential impacts on freshwater ecosystems. Understanding how microplastics are transported and distributed along river systems is key to assessing impacts. Modelling the main flow dynamics, mixing, sedimentation and resuspension processes is essential for an understanding of the transport processes. We use the new, processed based, dynamic, integrated catchments (INCA) microplastics model and apply this to the whole of the freshwater catchment of the River Thames, UK, to evaluate inputs, loads and concentrations along the river system. Recent data from UK water industry studies on microplastics in effluent discharges and sewage sludge disposal has been utilised to drive the INCA microplastics model. Predicted concentrations and microplastic loads moving along the river system are shown to be significant, with a build-up of concentrations along the river, with increasing deposition on the riverbed. The potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems are evaluated and a review of policy implications is explored.

Full-scale trials to achieve low total phosphorus in effluents from sewage treatment works

The tightening of phosphorus (P) standards has forced the UK water industry to identify options to improve P removal in sewage treatment works. This article presents results of 12-month trials testing three technologies at full-scale: a membrane bioreactor (MBR), a continuous backwash up-flow sand filter (CBUSF) and a high-rate compressible media filter (HRCMF). The aim of the trial was to determine the lowest total phosphorus (TP) concentrations that these systems can consistently achieve under stable operating conditions. MBR is a mature technology combining biological treatment with membrane filtration for solids removal. CBUSF uses granular media deep filtration as removal process while HRCMF uses a synthetic fibre compressible media to retain solids and both technologies are typically applied as tertiary treatments in combination with chemical P removal. The lowest TP effluent concentration was recorded for CBUSF (0.22 mg P/L) while the highest TP removal was recorded for MBR (95 ± 3 %). HRCMF delivered the poorest performance (32 ± 26 % TP removal, 1.7 mg P/L average TP effluent), attributed to limited chemical TP binding and solids removal under the conditions tested. Factors affecting P removal performance during the trial were the identification of the optimal coagulant dose to bind soluble P, the formation of solids that can be removed by the separation unit, insufficient reaction time for the coagulation process and the carryover of coagulant into the final effluent. The trials gave valuable insights to address the implementation of new technologies or upgrade existing assets' performance.

BIM in the water industry: addressing challenges to improve the project delivery process

PurposeThe UK water industry is a private sector that has no government mandate to implement building information modelling (BIM) but would benefit from its use. Research has identified that fragmentation and inefficiency still existed in the water industry project delivery processes. These issues can be addressed by harnessing the collaboration that BIM brings by using emerging information technology. The UK water industry has had little research in the use of BIM in the project delivery processes over the years.Design/methodology/approachThe aim of the research is to explore and examine BIM elements currently used in the water industry, as well as understand the organisational cultural support for BIM. It also investigated the adoption of BIM which will enable to improve water industry project delivery processes. An empirical study was performed in the UK given the relatively new and unexplored nature of the research problem, a qualitative research methodology was adopted. In total, 14 semi-structured interviews from six water sector organisations were conducted to collect data, which was then analysed using thematic analysis for inference and conclusion.FindingsThe study identified that BIM has already changed how projects are delivered by the water companies and their supply chain. Use of emerging technology such as Autodesk Revit, Civil 3D and virtual reality has gained traction and is leading organisations to continue investing in these areas to remain relevant. Although staff training was offered by all organisations within the study cohort, some interviews still thought that more can be done by their organisations as BIM is still maturing. Those interviewed regarded BIM models as data and information rich with the ability to enable the supply chain to obtain quicker approvals.Originality/valueThe paper provides a richer insight into the understanding and awareness of BIM elements used in the water industry to improve project delivery processes. This study suggests that the water industry supply chain has taken positive steps and started to benefit from BIM use. It also recommends that there is a need for cross-sector collaboration to capture and share best and worst practices relating to BIM adoption in the water sector.

Priority setting for invasive species management by the water industry

The expansion of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) is a growing concern to the UK water industry because of their diverse impacts on water quality, infrastructure and eradication costs. New regulations reinforcing the industry’s responsibilities beyond operational costs, coupled with continued range expansion and establishment of new IAS will increase damages. To tackle IAS effectively, the water industry requires reliable information about which species pose the greatest risk to operations and which areas are most vulnerable to invasion. Here we assess potential biosecurity threats for the 24 water companies in the UK using well-established modelling research techniques such as risk assessment and distribution modelling. Using a consensus approach with environmental managers and water companies, we identified 11 IAS of concern for the UK water industry, including five plants, three crustaceans, two molluscs and one fish. These invaders pose important hazards in terms of water quality, flood protection, human health, integrity of infrastructures, recreational and aesthetic values, amongst others. We used distribution models to predict their potential expansion under current and future 2050 climate scenarios within each of the 24 water companies in the UK. Water companies in the South East of England (Cambridge Water, Anglian Water, Affinity Water and Thames Water) are under the highest risk of invasional meltdown from multiple IAS, both now and under future scenarios. The quagga mussel poses the most serious risk of immediate spread and may exacerbate the impacts of the widespread zebra mussel for the water industry. The information generated in this study can support the prioritization of species and regions at risk, so that funds for prevention and eradication of invasions are well allocated. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that scientific risk assessments, usually restricted to the academic and public sectors, can be extremely useful to guide decision-making by the private sector.

Integrating blue-green and grey infrastructure through an adaptation pathways approach to surface water flooding.

A range of solutions to future flood risk are available ranging from blue-green infrastructure (BGI) as commonly incorporated in sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) to traditional grey infrastructure (e.g. pipe networks, storage tanks, flood walls). Each offers a different profile with respect to costs, flexibility of implementation and the ability to deliver a range of wider benefits beyond their flood protection function. An important question that must be addressed when considering these approaches is what is the most suitable mix of grey and blue-green solutions to urban flooding at any location and at any future time? This paper uses an adaptation pathways approach to compare a range of alternative options to deal with current and expected future flood risk in part of a London borough. Solutions considered separately and in combination include grey pipe expansion, bioretention cells, permeable pavements and storage ponds. A methodological framework combines a range of existing tools to develop, assess and characterize each pathway, including a storm water management model (SWMM), a SuDs opportunity selection tool, an adaptation pathway generator and the CIRIA B£ST tool for monetizing multiple benefits. Climate change is represented by the UK Water Industry Research method for establishing future rainfall intensities for sewer and BGI design. The results showed that by extending the way in which adaptation pathways are compared and evaluated through the wider consideration of multiple benefits there is a trade-off between deferring interventions until they are needed for flood risk mitigation and delivering the multiple benefits associated with interventions so that performance thresholds do not need to be met before introducing new options. The relative contribution of each option's capital and operation and maintenance costs has implications on when the option is implemented as well as the rate of implementation. The monetization of the multiple benefits associated with each pathway shows that their economic co-evaluation alongside infrastructure costs can change the preference for one pathway over another. This article is part of the theme issue 'Urban flood resilience'.

Supply Chain Partner Communication in a Managed Programme in the UK Water Industry: A Case Study with Social Network Analysis.

The water industry in every country aims to effectively and efficiently provide water with satisfactory quality in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. To this end, it is critical to achieve effective communication among the partners in water supply chain networks. In this paper, we focus on one of the UK’s largest water utility companies and its eight main contractors and analyze the factors influencing partner and network communication in a managed programme of their asset supply chain. We employ social network analysis to conduct the cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of partner communication. Factors found to influence the communication network are grouping of projects within the programme, individual’s organisational affiliation, status, tenure, elapsed time through the programme lifecycle, and co-location. Our contributions to practice include demonstrating water programme management factors that influence communication and trust and how social network analysis can better inform them about intra- and interorganisational relationships. Moreover, the methodology introduced in this study may be applied to water management in other parts of the world.

An Industrial Digitalization Platform for Condition Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance of Pumping Equipment.

This paper is concerned with the implementation and field-testing of an edge device for real-time condition monitoring and fault detection for large-scale rotating equipment in the UK water industry. The edge device implements a local digital twin, processing information from low-cost transducers mounted on the equipment in real-time. Condition monitoring is achieved with sliding-mode observers employed as soft sensors to estimate critical internal pump parameters to help detect equipment wear before damage occurs. The paper describes the implementation of the edge system on a prototype microcontroller-based embedded platform, which supports the Modbus protocol; IP/GSM communication gateways provide remote connectivity to the network core, allowing further detailed analytics for predictive maintenance to take place. The paper first describes validation testing of the edge device using Hardware-In-The-Loop techniques, followed by trials on large-scale pumping equipment in the field. The paper concludes that the proposed system potentially delivers a flexible and low-cost industrial digitalization platform for condition monitoring and predictive maintenance applications in the water industry.

Cost Efficiency of English and Welsh Water Companies: a Meta-Stochastic Frontier Analysis

In regulated industries it is important to identify appropriate performance benchmarks to incentivize companies’ performance. This study applies a stochastic metafrontier approach to estimate the cost efficiency of the English and Welsh Water and Sewerage companies (WaSCs) and Water only companies (WoCs) over the period 1998–2009. The results indicate that the UK water industry is a mature and efficient sector in which WaSCs perform more efficiently than WoCs since cost efficiency scores are 0.965 and 0.958 on average, respectively. We found that water companies can become more cost efficient by managing assets more efficiently, extracting water from reservoirs, and investing in technologies that reduce water leakage and predict more accurately bursts in networks. The results of our study should be of great interest to water regulators and utility managers who want to make more informed management decisions to minimize costs, allocate resources efficiently and improve environmental performance. Future research will extend the years considered to assess the impact of recent regulatory reforms in the cost efficiency of the English and Welsh water companies.

The fatigue performance of electrofusion tapping tees subject to contamination

Electrofusion jointing is a common joint process used to weld polyethylene (PE) water pipe in the UK. For many years, the UK Water Industry has experienced a small number of premature failures of electrofusion fittings; this inevitably causes leakage. The common causes of critical failures have been highlighted and as a result of this, a testing programme was designed and implemented to assess the fatigue performance of electrofusion tapping tees if they were to be installed by ‘bad practice’. A fine china talc was used to replicate contamination in the field. The results suggest that failures associated with fatigue are possible in a relatively short space of time on tapping tees when they are subject to contamination. The pressure ranges used in the fatigue regime aimed to replicate the potential magnitude of surge pressures that can be experienced in water distribution mains.

Management innovation in complex products and systems: The case of integrated project teams

This paper examines the process of a management innovation in complex products and systems (CoPS). Prior literature offers limited theoretical and empirical insights into how an inter-organizational relationship delivers CoPS by moving towards ‘integrated project teams’ over time. The research is based on an in-depth, longitudinal case study, drawing on 34 semi-structured interviews and secondary data from following a client-contractor relationship in the UK water industry over time. The study draws out the various management innovation development phases. It also provides detailed insights in the developments and benefits of setting up integrated project teams. The study contributes to extant literature and practice by linking previously separate research streams of organizational design and management innovation with the management of CoPS.

Understanding how changing rainfall may impact on urban drainage systems; lessons from projects in the UK and USA

Abstract Urban flooding and wet weather pollution are recognised as significant problems across the world, and changes in rainfall patterns arising as a consequence of climate change are likely to exacerbate these problems. This paper shares learning from a ground-breaking project led by CH2M for UK Water Industry Research and approaches used in other CH2M projects around the world. The UK project has explored the use of very high resolution (1.5 km) climate model output and climate analogues; other projects have used other methods to derive new design rainfall statistics commonly used in modelling wet weather collection systems for flooding and pollution investigations. Estimates of rainfall change have been used within collection system models to estimate the flooding and pollution impact of these changes. The methods applied in these projects can be replicated globally.

Design for manufacture and assembly: its benefits and risks in the UK water industry

A study was undertaken to investigate the impacts of design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) on one of the UK’s largest water companies. The study collected data on historic and new building projects that, in some part, used DFMA principles. This was supplemented by qualitative data from interviews conducted with senior engineers and managers from across the company and its direct tier 1 supply chain. The study shows DFMA to be poorly defined within the UK water industry, and a new definition is presented here. This is supplemented with a scoring tool that enables users to state clearly what they want with regard to DFMA and provides a means of assessing its potential during project tenders. The data support the perception that it can deliver cost, time and quality improvements and show that early DFMA-focused management is essential in delivering these improvements. However, the study also reveals that DFMA carries risks common to the application of new technologies, so risk management tools need to recognise the additional risks associated with it. A method for reviewing specific operational risks typical to the water industry against product uncertainty is presented here.

A client’s perspective of design for manufacture and assembly in the UK water industry

UK water companies are under increasing pressure from regulators, customers and tightening legislation to deliver more for less. The design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) has proven to deliver efficiencies in other sectors including construction and manufacturing. Faced with increasing financial constraints, many water industry companies are now looking to gain the benefits of DFMA. A study was undertaken to summarise the processes adopted by one of the UK’s largest water companies to achieve the benefits of DFMA. The company sees DFMA as an efficiency strategy in delivering its investment programme. To enable, lead and drive this strategy, the company implemented a client-led DFMA change programme supported by collaboration with key supply partners including contractors, consultants and suppliers. DFMA forms part of a wider strategic shift at the company comprising better digital data management and a design-and-build contract strategy. These changes will drive efficiencies across the investment programme and optimise the future operation and whole-life cost of the company’s asset base. This paper describes the company’s strategic shift to a DFMA delivery model and culture. It covers the who, what, why and how of the DFMA programme.