UK National Diet Research Articles

Waist-to-height ratio as an indicator of ‘early health risk’: simpler and more predictive than using a ‘matrix’ based on BMI and waist circumference

ObjectivesThere is now good evidence that central obesity carries more health risks compared with total obesity assessed by body mass index (BMI). It has therefore been suggested that waist circumference...

Identifying small groups of foods that can predict achievement of key dietary recommendations: data mining of the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey, 2008-12.

Many dietary assessment methods attempt to estimate total food and nutrient intake. If the intention is simply to determine whether participants achieve dietary recommendations, this leads to much redundant data. We used data mining techniques to explore the number of foods that intake information was required on to accurately predict achievement, or not, of key dietary recommendations. We built decision trees for achievement of recommendations for fruit and vegetables, sodium, fat, saturated fat and free sugars using data from a national dietary surveillance data set. Decision trees describe complex relationships between potential predictor variables (age, sex and all foods listed in the database) and outcome variables (achievement of each of the recommendations). UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS, 2008-12). The analysis included 4156 individuals. Information on consumption of 113 out of 3911 (3 %) foods, plus age and sex was required to accurately categorize individuals according to all five recommendations. The best trade-off between decision tree accuracy and number of foods included occurred at between eleven (for fruit and vegetables) and thirty-two (for fat, plus age) foods, achieving an accuracy of 72 % (for fat) to 83 % (for fruit and vegetables), with similar values for sensitivity and specificity. Using information on intake of 113 foods, it is possible to predict with 72-83 % accuracy whether individuals achieve key dietary recommendations. Substantial further research is required to make use of these findings for dietary assessment.

Adolescents' non-core food intake: a description of what, where and with whom adolescents consume non-core foods.

Little is known about adolescents' non-core food intake in the UK and the eating context in which they consume non-core foods. The present study aimed to describe types of non-core foods consumed by British adolescents in total and across different eating contexts. A descriptive analysis, using cross-sectional data from food diaries. Non-core foods were classified based on cut-off points of fat and sugar from the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Eating context was defined as 'where' and 'with whom' adolescents consumed each food. Percentages of non-core energy were calculated for each food group in total and across eating contexts. A combined ranking was then created to account for each food's contribution to non-core energy intake and its popularity of consumption (percentage of consumers). The UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008-2011. Adolescents across the UK aged 11-18 years (n 666). Non-core food comprised 39·5 % of total energy intake and was mostly 'Regular soft drinks', 'Crisps & savoury snacks', 'Chips & potato products', 'Chocolate' and 'Biscuits'. Adolescents ate 57·0 % and 51·3 % of non-core food at 'Eateries' or with 'Friends', compared with 33·2 % and 32·1 % at 'Home' or with 'Parents'. Persistent foods consumed across eating contexts were 'Regular soft drinks' and 'Chips & potato products'. Regular soft drinks contribute the most energy and are the most popular non-core food consumed by adolescents regardless of context, and represent a good target for interventions to reduce non-core food consumption.

Low Calorie Beverage Consumption Is Associated with Energy and Nutrient Intakes and Diet Quality in British Adults.

It is unclear whether consumption of low-calorie beverages (LCB) leads to compensatory consumption of sweet foods, thus reducing benefits for weight control or diet quality. This analysis investigated associations between beverage consumption and energy intake and diet quality of adults in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) (2008–2011; n = 1590), classified into: (a) non-consumers of soft drinks (NC); (b) LCB consumers; (c) sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumers; or (d) consumers of both beverages (BB), based on 4-day dietary records. Within-person data on beverage consumption on different days assessed the impact on energy intake. LCB consumers and NC consumed less energy and non-milk extrinsic sugars than other groups. Micronutrient intakes and food choices suggested higher dietary quality in NC/LCB consumers compared with SSB/BB consumers. Within individuals on different days, consumption of SSB, milk, juice, and alcohol were all associated with increased energy intake, while LCB and tea, coffee or water were associated with no change; or reduced energy intake when substituted for caloric beverages. Results indicate that NC and LCB consumers tend to have higher quality diets compared with SSB or BB consumers and do not compensate for sugar or energy deficits by consuming more sugary foods.

Characterisation of UK diets according to degree of food processing and associations with socio-demographics and obesity: cross-sectional analysis of UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008-12).

BackgroundFood processing alters food from its natural state for safety, convenience, taste or palatability. Previous research suggests that industrially processed foods, and diets high in these products, tend to be less healthful. However, most previous work is based on household, rather than individual-level, data. Little has been reported on the relationship between processed food consumption and markers of health; or on socio-demographic correlates of processed food consumption.Our objective was to describe: the nutritional content of foods classified according to degree of processing; the nutritional content of diets with different relative intakes of processed foods; the socio-demographic characteristics of individuals with different relative intakes of processed foods; and the association between intake of processed foods and body weight.MethodsSecondary analysis of data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008–12), a large national cross-sectional study of diet. Dietary information was collected using four-day, unweighed, food-diaries. Foods were classified as: unprocessed or minimally processed (MPF; foods with no processing or mostly physical processes applied to single whole foods), processed ingredients (PI; extracted and purified components of single whole foods), or ultra-processed food products (UPF; products produced from industrial combining of MPF and PI).ResultsTwo thousand one hundred seventy four adults were included. MPF and diets high in these foods, had the most healthful nutritional profile. UPF did not necessarily have the least healthful nutritional profile, but diets high in these foods did. Women, and older adults consumed more energy from MPF, and less from UPF. Those living in lower occupation social class households consumed less energy from MPF, but no more from UPF. Only higher intake of PI was consistently, inversely, associated with body weight.ConclusionsThis is the first study to explore correlates of processed food consumption, using individual-level data from a large, national sample. Although higher intakes of MPF and lower intakes of UPF were associated with the most healthful dietary profiles, only intake of PI was consistently associated with body weight. Consumption of UPF varied by age and gender, but, unexpectedly, not by occupational social class. Longitudinal work is required to confirm relationships with health markers.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0317-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Does food portion size differ by level of household income? A cross-sectional study using the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008–11

BackgroundIn developed countries, disadvantaged groups have higher prevalence of obesity and its associated chronic diseases than do high income groups. This study aimed to investigate the association between the level of household income and food portion size for the top 20 most frequently consumed foods by adolescents and adults. MethodsData for this study came from the UK National Diet and Nutritional Survey (2008–11). Using a 4 day estimated food record, we calculated food portion size for 567 adolescents (11–18 years) and 992 adults (19–65 years). For each participant, average portion size for each food was calculated by dividing the total weight of the food by the frequency of consumption; then the average food portion size was calculated for each food for the whole sample. This method avoided portion sizes being skewed because of individuals who frequently consumed small or large portions. Levels of income were classified by household income per year: low (≥£24 999), middle (£25 000–49 999), and high (≥£50 000). Associations with food portion size were tested with multivariable regression models adjusting for sex and age (significance at p≥0·01). Findings205, 226, and 136 adolescents and 395, 379, and 218 adults were classified as having low, middle, and high household incomes, respectively. Adolescents from low income households consumed smaller portions of “tap water” than did those in high income households (by 52 mL, 99% CI 7–97; p<0·0001). Adolescents from middle income households consumed larger food portion sizes of “carbonated soft drinks” than did those from high income households (40 mL, 2–81; p=0·01). Adults in low income households consumed larger food portion sizes of “cheese”, “mashed potato”, and “savoury sauces, pickles” (by 9 g [2–15], 25 g [2–15], and 12 g [7–43], respectively; p<0·0001), and drank smaller portions of “tap water” (34 mL [3–71], p=0·01) than did those from high income households. No significant differences were seen in food portion sizes between adults in middle and high income households. InterpretationPortion sizes of only a few foods differed by household income; nonetheless, these foods might contribute to inequalities in healthy dietary intake in both adults and adolescents. More attention should be given to both food and drink portion sizes when planning public health nutrition interventions and policy programmes aimed at closing the socioeconomic gap in obesity and chronic disease morbidity and mortality. FundingSAA is in receipt of a scholarship from King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

High salt intake: independent risk factor for obesity?

High salt intake is the major cause of raised blood pressure and accordingly leads to cardiovascular diseases. Recently, it has been shown that high salt intake is associated with an increased risk of obesity through sugar-sweetened beverage consumption. Increasing evidence also suggests a direct link. Our study aimed to determine whether there was a direct association between salt intake and obesity independent of energy intake. We analyzed the data from the rolling cross-sectional study-the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008/2009 to 2011/2012. We included 458 children (52% boys; age, 10±4 years) and 785 adults (47% men; age, 49±17 years) who had complete 24-hour urine collections. Energy intake was calculated from 4-day diary and misreporting was assessed by Goldberg method. The results showed that salt intake as measured by 24-hour urinary sodium was higher in overweight and obese individuals. A 1-g/d increase in salt intake was associated with an increase in the risk of obesity by 28% (odds ratio, 1.28; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-1.45; P=0.0002) in children and 26% (odds ratio, 1.26; 95% confidence interval, 1.16-1.37; P<0.0001) in adults, after adjusting for age, sex, ethnic group, household income, physical activity, energy intake, and diet misreporting, and in adults with additional adjustment for education, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Higher salt intake was also significantly related to higher body fat mass in both children (P=0.001) and adults (P=0.001) after adjusting for age, sex, ethnic group, and energy intake. These results suggest that salt intake is a potential risk factor for obesity independent of energy intake.

Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of cooking skills in UK adults: cross-sectional analysis of data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey.

BackgroundPoor cooking skills may be a barrier to healthy eating and a contributor to overweight and obesity. Little population-representative data on adult cooking skills has been published. We explored prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of cooking skills among adult respondents to wave 1 of the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008–9).MethodsSocio-demographic variables of interest were sex, age group, occupational socio-economic group and whether or not respondents had the main responsibility for food in their households. Cooking skills were assessed as self-reported confidence in using eight cooking techniques, confidence in cooking ten foods, and ability to prepare four types of dish (convenience foods, a complete meal from ready-made ingredients, a main meal from basic ingredients, and cake or biscuits from basic ingredients). Frequency of preparation of main meals was also reported.ResultsOf 509 respondents, almost two-thirds reported cooking a main meal at least five times per week. Around 90 % reported being able to cook convenience foods, a complete meal from ready-made ingredient, and a main dish from basic ingredients without help. Socio-demographic differences in all markers of cooking skills were scattered and inconsistent. Where these were found, women and main food providers were most likely to report confidence with foods, techniques or dishes, and respondents in the youngest age (19–34 years) and lowest socio-economic group least likely.ConclusionsThis is the only exploration of the prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of adult cooking skills using recent and population-representative UK data and adds to the international literature on cooking skills in developed countries. Reported confidence with using most cooking techniques and preparing most foods was high. There were few socio-demographic differences in reported cooking skills. Adult cooking skills interventions are unlikely to have a large population impact, but may have important individual effects if clearly targeted at: men, younger adults, and those in the least affluent social groups.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0261-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The effect of snacking and eating frequency on dietary quality in British adolescents.

To describe the effects of number of eating occasions and snacks on dietary quality (DQ), defined as adherence to dietary recommendations. A sample of 884 adolescents (11-18years) in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) were included. The Diet Quality Index for Adolescents (DQI-A) was implemented. The total number of eating occasions and snacks was frequency of food or beverages consumed over 24h and frequency of foods or beverages consumed outside of the three mealtimes, respectively. Results were generated with and without low-energy food under 210kJ (50kcal). Regression models were generated with DQ score as the outcome variable and number of eating occasions and snacks as predictors. The mean (95% CI) DQ score was 31.1% (30.2, 32.0). The mean number of eating occasions and snacks was 7.5 (7.3, 7.7) and 2.6 (2.6, 2.7) times/day, respectively. When low-energy events were excluded, the mean number of eating occasions and snacks reduced to 6.2 (6.1, 6.4) and 2.0 (2.0, 2.1) times/day, respectively. DQ score increased by 0.74 points (0.42, 1.05; p<0.01) and 0.55 points (-0.08, 0.69; p=0.17) for total eating occasions and snacks, respectively. When low-energy events were excluded, DQ score increased by 0.30 points (-0.84, 0.69; p=0.13) for each eating occasion and decreased by 1.20 points (-2.1, -0.3; p<0.01) for each snack. Eating more frequently improves dietary quality especially if some eating occasions are low in energy. A focus on replacing high-energy snacks with low-energy alternatives rather than reducing the number of eating occasions may result in improved dietary quality in adolescents.

Frequency and socio-demographic correlates of eating meals out and take-away meals at home: cross-sectional analysis of the UK national diet and nutrition survey, waves 1-4 (2008-12).

BackgroundFood prepared out-of-home tends to be less healthful than food prepared at home, with a positive association between frequency of consumption and both fat intake and body fatness. There is little current data on who eats out-of-home food. We explored frequency and socio-demographic correlates of eating meals out and take-away meals at home, using data from a large, UK, population representative study.MethodsData were from waves 1–4 of the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008–12). Socio-demographic variables of interest were gender, age group, and socio-economic position. Self-reported frequency of consuming meals out and take-away meals at home was categorised as: less than once per week and once per week or more. Analyses were performed separately for adults (aged 18 years or older) and children.ResultsData from 2001 adults and 1963 children were included. More than one quarter (27.1%) of adults and one fifth (19.0%) of children ate meals out once per week or more. One fifth of adults (21.1%) and children (21.0%) ate take-away meals at home once per week or more. There were no gender differences in consumption of meals out, but more boys than girls ate take-away meals at home at least weekly. The proportion of participants eating both meals out and take-away meals at home at least weekly peaked in young adults aged 19–29 years. Adults living in more affluent households were more likely to eat meals out at least once per week, but children living in less affluent households were more likely to eat take-away meals at home at least once per week. There was no relationship between socio-economic position and consumption of take-away meals at home in adults.ConclusionsOne-fifth to one-quarter of individuals eat meals prepared out-of-home weekly. Interventions seeking to improve dietary intake by reducing consumption of out-of-home food may be more effective if tailored to and targeted at adults aged less than 30 years. It may also be important to develop interventions to help children and adolescents avoid becoming frequent consumers of out-of-home food.

Identifying Dietary Patterns Associated with Dairy Consumption in British Children

Milk and dairy products are important components of the diet. However, consumption in children remains relatively low. The aim of this study was to identify dietary patterns associated with variations in dairy consumption in British children.&#x0D; Data were derived from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey collected in 2008/09‐2011/12 and included a total of 1687 children (828 girls and 859 boys) aged between 4 and 18 years old. Diet was assessed by a four‐day estimated food diary. Fifty food groups were created and were expressed as g/d. Dietary data was organised in quartiles of dairy intake (included milk, yogurt, ice cream, cheese, other milk and cream, and dairy desserts) and dietary patterns were identified using Kruskal‐Wallis with Dunn's multiple comparisons test, to determine significant differences between dairy quartiles and food groups.&#x0D; The lowest dairy quartile (Q1: 0‐93 g dairy/d) was associated with significantly higher intake of soft drinks (P=0.001), chips (P=0.001), coated chicken (P&lt;0.05), chicken and turkey (P=0.05), and significantly lower intake of wholemeal bread (P=0.01), white fish (P=0.05), tea, coffee and water (P=0.05), biscuits (P=0.001), fruit (P=0.001), fibre (P=0.001) puddings (P=0.01) and sugar and preserves (P=0.05) compared with the highest dairy quartile (Q4: 306‐2022 g dairy/d).&#x0D; Overall, British children consuming a diet high in dairy foods had a dietary pattern that would be considered ‘healthy' compared with those consuming a diet low in dairy foods.&#x0D; This work was funded by DairyCo and The Dairy Council UK.

Variability in eating frequency in relation to adiposity measures and blood lipid profiles in British children and adolescents: findings from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey.

A very limited number of intervention trials and observational studies in adults have suggested that irregular eating frequency is associated with adverse profiles of metabolic risk factors, but evidence in younger populations is lacking. This cross-sectional study examined the association of variability in eating frequency with adiposity measures (n=1636) and blood lipid profiles (n=843) in British children aged 4-10 years (n=818 for adiposity measures and 324 for blood lipids) and adolescents aged 11-18 years (n=818 for adiposity measures and 519 for blood lipids). Data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey were analyzed. Dietary intake was assessed using a 7-day weighed dietary record. Eating frequency was calculated based on all eating occasions, except for those providing <210 kJ of energy. Variability in eating frequency was calculated by adding the absolute difference between the 7-day mean eating frequency and that in each day divided by the number of days (7 days), with a higher value indicating a large weekly variability in eating frequency. After adjustment for age, sex, social class, physical activity, ratio of reported energy intake to estimated energy requirement, body mass index z-score, eating frequency, and intakes of protein, saturated fat, total sugar and dietary fiber, variability in eating frequency was positively associated with total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in children aged 4-10 years (P=0.04 and 0.03, respectively), but not in adolescents aged 11-18 years. There were no associations between eating frequency variability and other metabolic risk factors examined, including body mass index z-score, waist-to-height ratio, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations. Larger variability in eating frequency was associated with higher total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in children aged 4-10 years.

Estimation of dietary iron bioavailability from food iron intake and iron status.

Currently there are no satisfactory methods for estimating dietary iron absorption (bioavailability) at a population level, but this is essential for deriving dietary reference values using the factorial approach. The aim of this work was to develop a novel approach for estimating dietary iron absorption using a population sample from a sub-section of the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS). Data were analyzed in 873 subjects from the 2000–2001 adult cohort of the NDNS, for whom both dietary intake data and hematological measures (hemoglobin and serum ferritin (SF) concentrations) were available. There were 495 men aged 19–64 y (mean age 42.7±12.1 y) and 378 pre-menopausal women (mean age 35.7±8.2 y). Individual dietary iron requirements were estimated using the Institute of Medicine calculations. A full probability approach was then applied to estimate the prevalence of dietary intakes that were insufficient to meet the needs of the men and women separately, based on their estimated daily iron intake and a series of absorption values ranging from 1–40%. The prevalence of SF concentrations below selected cut-off values (indicating that absorption was not high enough to maintain iron stores) was derived from individual SF concentrations. An estimate of dietary iron absorption required to maintain specified SF values was then calculated by matching the observed prevalence of insufficiency with the prevalence predicted for the series of absorption estimates. Mean daily dietary iron intakes were 13.5 mg for men and 9.8 mg for women. Mean calculated dietary absorption was 8% in men (50th percentile for SF 85 µg/L) and 17% in women (50th percentile for SF 38 µg/L). At a ferritin level of 45 µg/L estimated absorption was similar in men (14%) and women (13%). This new method can be used to calculate dietary iron absorption at a population level using data describing total iron intake and SF concentration.

Update of the vitamin D content of fortified foods and supplements in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey Nutrient Databank

Food composition tables require updating regularly to keep abreast of the periodic reformulation of fortified foods and dietary supplements. This paper describes a process undertaken to update the vitamin D content of fortified foods and supplements consumed in the UK, and the impact this may have on reported vitamin D intake. In 2011, the vitamin D content of the 289 vitamin D fortified foods and vitamin D containing supplements recorded in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) Nutrient Databank (last updated in 2008) was compared to data from industry websites, trade associations and manufacturers, and nutrition labelling on pack. Typical ‘overages’ (the additional amount added to account for any processing loss or degradation) applied during vitamin D fortification were also obtained. This information was used to update the NDNS Nutrient Databank, and applied to NDNS food consumption data (2008/2010) to determine the impact of the composition update on reported population vitamin D intakes. Up-to-date vitamin D values were obtained for 257 (89%) of the 289 items in the NDNS databank; the remainder were no longer available on the market. The vitamin D content of 31 (11%) of the items had changed, and these were most commonly breakfast cereals, fat spreads and powdered malt drinks. A further eight food items were identified as newly fortified with vitamin D. Calculation of mean vitamin D intakes using updated data identified that use of out-of-date food composition data may lead to an underestimation of UK vitamin D intakes of around 3% (0.1 μg/day). When a blanket 12.5% ‘overage’ was applied to all items, this underestimate increased to 6% (0.2 μg/day). Even though the absolute impact of updating the vitamin D content of fortified foods and supplements on population mean intakes is relatively small, our analysis suggests it is important that nutrient databases are regularly updated. The new estimates of the vitamin D content of foods and supplements should be used for future estimates of vitamin D intake in the UK until a further periodic update is conducted.

Phytonutrient intakes in relation to European fruit and vegetable consumption patterns observed in different food surveys.

Fruit and vegetables make an important contribution to health, partly due to the composition of phytonutrients, such as carotenoids and polyphenols. The aim of the present study was to quantify the intake of fruit and vegetables across different European countries using food consumption data of increasing complexity: food balance sheets (FBS); the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Comprehensive Database; individual food consumption data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS). Across Europe, the average consumption of fruit and vegetables ranged from 192 to 824g/d (FBS data). Based on EFSA data, nine out of fourteen countries consumed <400g/d (recommended by the WHO), although even in the highest-consuming countries such as Spain, 36% did not reach the target intake. In the UK, the average consumption of fruit and vegetables was 310g/d (NDNS data). Generally, phytonutrient intake increased in accordance with fruit and vegetable intake across all European countries with the exception of lycopene (from tomatoes), which appeared to be higher in some countries that consumed less fruit and vegetables. There were little differences in the average intake of flavanols, flavonols and lycopene in those who did or did not meet the 400g/d recommendation in the UK. However, average intakes of carotenoid, flavanone, anthocyanidin and ellagic acid were higher in those who consumed >400g/d of fruit and vegetables compared with those who did not. Overall, intakes of phytonutrients are highly variable, suggesting that while some individuals obtain healthful amounts, there may be others who do not gain all the potential benefits associated with phytonutrients in the diet.

Is there an association between food portion size and BMI among British adolescents?

The prevalence of obesity has increased simultaneously with the increase in the consumption of large food portion sizes (FPS). Studies investigating this association among adolescents are limited; fewer have addressed energy-dense foods as a potential risk factor. In the present study, the association between the portion size of the most energy-dense foods and BMI was investigated. A representative sample of 636 British adolescents (11-18 years) was used from the 2008-2011 UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey. FPS were estimated for the most energy-dense foods (those containing above 10·5 kJ/g (2·5 kcal/g)). Regression models with BMI as the outcome variable were adjusted for age, sex and misreporting energy intake (EI). A positive association was observed between total EI and BMI. For each 418 kJ (100 kcal) increase in EI, BMI increased by 0·19 kg/m2 (95 % CI 0·10, 0·28; P< 0·001) for the whole sample. This association remained significant after stratifying the sample by misreporting. The portion sizes of a limited number of high-energy-dense foods (high-fibre breakfast cereals, cream and high-energy soft drinks (carbonated)) were found to be positively associated with a higher BMI among all adolescents after adjusting for misreporting. When eliminating the effect of under-reporting, larger portion sizes of a number of high-energy-dense foods (biscuits, cheese, cream and cakes) were found to be positively associated with BMI among normal reporters. The portion sizes of only high-fibre breakfast cereals and high-energy soft drinks (carbonated) were found to be positively associated with BMI among under-reporters. These findings emphasise the importance of considering under-reporting when analysing adolescents' dietary intake data. Also, there is a need to address adolescents' awareness of portion sizes of energy-dense foods to improve their food choice and future health outcomes.

Assessment of dietary exposure to flavouring substances via consumption of flavoured teas. Part II: transfer rates of linalool and linalyl esters into Earl Grey tea infusions

The assessment of dietary exposure via the consumption of flavoured foods is a key element of the safety evaluation of flavouring substances. Linalyl acetate and linalool are the major flavouring substances in Earl Grey teas; the objective of this study was to determine their transfer rates from the tea leaves into the tea beverage upon preparation of a hot water infusion. Spiking experiments revealed a transfer rate of 66% for linalool. In contrast, the transfer rate for linalyl acetate was only 1.9%; in turn, the hydrolysis product linalool (17.0%) and a spectrum (19.9%) of degradation and rearrangement products (monoterpene alcohols, esters and hydrocarbons) were present in the tea beverage. The transfer rates were shown to be proportional to the length of the infusion. The impact of the hot water treatment on the enantiomeric compositions of linalyl acetate and linalool was determined, and structure-dependent experiments were performed by variation of the acyl and the alcohol moiety of the monoterpene ester. Comparative dietary exposure assessments demonstrated the need to take correction factors based on the experimentally determined transfer rates into account. Based on tea consumption data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2000/2001), the exposure to linalyl acetate ranges from 0.2 mg day−1 (average) to 1.8 mg day−1 (high). The corresponding values for linalool are 4.2 mg day−1 (average) and 46.6 mg day−1 (high). The exposure of linalool via consumption of the tea beverage is approximately 26 times higher than that of linalyl acetate, although in the flavoured tea leaves the median content of linalyl acetate is approximately 1.8 times higher than that of linalool.

Estimates of dietary exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) from light metal packaging using food consumption and packaging usage data: a refined deterministic approach and a fully probabilistic (FACET) approach

The FACET tool is a probabilistic model to estimate exposure to chemicals in foodstuffs, originating from flavours, additives and food contact materials. This paper demonstrates the use of the FACET tool to estimate exposure to BPA (bisphenol A) from light metal packaging. For exposure to migrants from food packaging, FACET uses industry-supplied data on the occurrence of substances in the packaging, their concentrations and construction of the packaging, which were combined with data from a market research organisation and food consumption data supplied by national database managers. To illustrate the principles, UK packaging data were used together with consumption data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) dietary survey for 19–64 year olds for a refined deterministic verification. The UK data were chosen mainly because the consumption surveys are detailed, data for UK packaging at a detailed level were available and, arguably, the UK population is composed of high consumers of packaged foodstuffs. Exposures were run for each food category that could give rise to BPA from light metal packaging. Consumer loyalty to a particular type of packaging, commonly referred to as packaging loyalty, was set. The BPA extraction levels used for the 15 types of coating chemistries that could release BPA were in the range of 0.00005–0.012 mg dm–2. The estimates of exposure to BPA using FACET for the total diet were 0.0098 (mean) and 0.0466 (97.5th percentile) mg/person/day, corresponding to 0.00013 (mean) and 0.00059 (97.5th percentile) mg kg–1 body weight day–1 for consumers of foods packed in light metal packaging. This is well below the current EFSA (and other recognised bodies) TDI of 0.05 mg kg–1 body weight day–1. These probabilistic estimates were compared with estimates using a refined deterministic approach drawing on the same input data. The results from FACET for the mean, 95th and 97.5th percentile exposures to BPA lay between the lowest and the highest estimates from the refined deterministic calculations. Since this should be the case, for a fully probabilistic compared with a deterministic approach, it is concluded that the FACET tool has been verified in this example. A recent EFSA draft opinion on exposure to BPA from different sources showed that canned foods were a major contributor and compared results from various models, including those from FACET. The results from FACET were overall conservative.

Developing an interactive portion size assessment system (IPSAS) for use with children

Novel methods of assessing dietary intake are required to reduce the participant burden in dietary surveys, improve participation rates and thereby improve the representativeness of the sample and minimise the impact of measuring dietary intake on a subject's food intake during the recording period. One method of reducing the burden placed on participants in recording dietary intake is to replace weighing of foods with estimation of portion size using tools such as food photographs. The interactive portion size assessment system (IPSAS) is an interactive portion size assessment system for use in assessing portion sizes of foods consumed by children aged 18months to 16years. The system is computer-based and is designed to be administered during an interview for a food diary or 24-h recall. The portion sizes depicted are age-specific and based on the weights of foods served to children during the UK National Diet and Nutrition Surveys. The system displays digital images of food used to estimate the amount of each food served to the child and the amount of any food left over. Foods are categorised within the system using a three-tier structure. Twenty-seven food group icons are used with two further drop-down menus to select first the food group, then the food category and, finally, the actual food product. Each food is linked to UK food composition codes and all photographs are linked to the weight of the food depicted. Nutritional output is via a companion database. The present study describes the development of the IPSAS and the structure of the system.

Intake of game birds in the UK: assessment of the contribution to the dietary intake of lead by women of childbearing age and children.

Concern has recently been expressed about Pb levels in Pb-shot game meat. Our aim was to determine the consumption of game birds in a representative sample population in the UK, and in children and women of childbearing age in particular. Population-based cross-sectional cohort study. Data from 4 d diet diaries from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS; 2008-2010) were extracted to analyse data on game bird consumption in the sample population, in women of childbearing age (15-45 years old) and in children ≤6 years old. Home-based study in representative areas of the UK. Participants in the NDNS (2008-2010; n 2126, age 1·5 to >65 years). Fifty-eight participants (2·7 %) reported eating game birds. The mean intake was 19·5 (sd 18·1) g/d (median 15·6, range 1·3-92·9 g/d). In women of childbearing age (15-45 years), 11/383 (2·9 %) reported eating game birds, with a mean intake of 22·4 (sd 25·8) g/d (median 15·6, range 2·0-92·9 g/d). In children aged ≤6 years old, 3/342 (0·9 %) were reported as eating game birds, with a mean intake of 6·8 (sd 9·7) g/d (median 2·4, range 1·3-23·2 g/d). The prevalence of consumption of game birds by women of childbearing age and children ≤6 years old was relatively low and intakes were small. However, any exposure to Pb in these two groups is undesirable. As are uncertainties about the ability of the diet diary method to capture the consumption of food items that are infrequently consumed, alternative methods of capturing these data should be used in future studies.