UK Millennium Cohort Study Research Articles

Psychological Well-being Trajectories of Individuals with Dyslexia Aged 3-11Years.

Dyslexia has been associated with a range of psychological well-being issues in childhood. However, it is unclear if these difficulties stem from coping with academic struggles at school, or from other pre-existing diagnoses that sometimes co-occur with dyslexia. Using UK Millennium Cohort Study data (n=7224) from 2003 to 2011, the present study compared psychological well-being development from ages 3-11years for children with (1) dyslexia only; (2) special educational needs excluding dyslexia; (3) comorbid dyslexia and other special educational needs; and (4) no special educational needs. Growth curve modelling results controlling for race, gender, age and family income suggested that with the exception of conduct difficulties, psychological well-being issues related to dyslexia do not occur preschool; rather, they commence upon starting school. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Self-regulation and household routines at age three and obesity at age eleven: longitudinal analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

ObjectiveTo examine, in a population-based cohort of three-year-old children, the association between self-regulation and exposure to the household routines of regular bedtime, regular mealtime, and limits on watching television/video; and to determine whether self-regulation and these routines predict the risk of obesity at age 11.MethodsAnalyses included 10 955 children in the nationally-representative UK Millennium Cohort Study. When children were age 3, parents reported whether children had a regular bedtime and mealtime and the amount of television/video watched. Emotional and cognitive self-regulation at age 3 were assessed by parent-report with the Child Social Behaviour Questionnaire. Children’s height and weight were measured at age 11 and obesity was defined using the International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) criteria.ResultsAt age 3, 41% of children always had a regular bedtime, 47% always had a regular mealtime, and 23% were limited to ≤1 hour television/video daily. At age 11, 6.2% of children were obese. All three household routines were significantly associated with better emotional self-regulation, but not better cognitive self-regulation. In a multi-variable logistic regression model including emotional and cognitive self-regulation, all routines, and controlling for sociodemographic covariates, a 1 unit difference in emotional self-regulation at age 3 was associated with an OR (95% CI) for obesity of 1.38 (1.11, 1.71) at age 11, and inconsistent bedtimes with an OR (95% CI) for obesity of 1.87 (1.39, 2.51) at age 11. There was no evidence that emotional self-regulation mediated the relationship between regular bedtimes and later obesity. Cognitive self-regulation was not associated with later obesity.ConclusionsThree-year-old children who had regular bedtimes, mealtimes, and limits on their television/video time had better emotional self-regulation. Lack of a regular bedtime and poorer emotional self-regulation at age 3 were independent predictors of obesity at age 11.

Tails of the Travelling Gaussian model and the relative age effect: Tales of age discrimination and wasted talent.

The Relative Age Effect (RAE) documents the inherent disadvantages of being younger rather than older in an age-banded cohort, typically a school- or competition-year, to the detriment of career-progression, earnings and wellbeing into adulthood. We develop the Tails of the Travelling Gaussian (TTG) to model the mechanisms behind RAE. TTG has notable advantages over existing approaches, which have been largely descriptive, potentially confounded, and non-comparable across contexts. In Study 1, using data from the UK’s Millennium Cohort Study, we investigate the different levels of RAE bias across school-level academic subjects and “personality” traits. Study 2 concerns biased admissions to elite English Premier League soccer academies, and shows the model can still be used with minimal data. We also develop two practical metrics: the discrimination index (ID), to quantify the disadvantages facing cohort-younger children; and the wastage metric (W), to quantify the loss through untapped potential. TTG is sufficiently well-specified to simulate the consequences of ID and W for policy change.

The impact of greenspace and condition of the neighbourhood on child overweight.

Childhood overweight/obesity has been associated with environmental, parenting and socioeconomic status (SES) factors. This paper assesses the influence of the amount of green space, accessibility to a garden and neighbourhood condition on being overweight/obese. It investigates whether parental behaviours moderate or mediate this influence and evaluates the interaction of SES with environmental context. 6467 children from the UK Millennium Cohort Study living in England were analysed. We estimated logistic regressions to examine the initial association between environment and overweight. Subsequently, parenting determinants comprising: food consumption, physical activity, rules and regularity were evaluated as moderators or mediators. Lastly SES related variables were tested as moderators or mediators of the associations. Statistically significant associations were found between low levels of green space, no access to a garden, run down area and childhood overweight/obesity [odds ratio (OR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] respectively: 1.14 (1.02-1.27), 1.35 (1.16-1.58), 1.22 (1.05-1.42)]. None of the parental constructs mediated or moderated the relationships between environment and childhood overweight/obesity. Including SES, parental education moderated the effect of environmental context. Specifically, among lower educated households lack of garden access and less green space was associated with overweight/obesity; and among higher educated households poor neighbourhood condition influenced the probability of overweight/obesity respectively: 1.38 (1.12-1.70) OR 1.38, 95% CI (1.21-1.70). This study suggests that limits on access to outdoor space are associated with future childhood overweight/obesity although the ways in which this occurs are moderated by parental education level.

Maternal Repartnering: Does Father Involvement Matter? Evidence from United Kingdom

Maternal repartnering may have benefits for mothers and children. Yet, mothers with coresident children face more difficulty repartnering than other adults. Despite that shared physical custody and father involvement have increased over time, few studies have examined whether nonresidential father involvement and financial support are associated with subsequent maternal repartnering. Using data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, we found a negative relationship between nonresident father involvement and subsequent maternal repartnering among mothers who were neither married nor cohabiting at childbirth. A potential explanation is that these parents may be engaged in fluid and uncertain relationships, and that the ambiguity thereof may discourage maternal repartnering. We found no association between father involvement and maternal repartnering for mothers who were cohabiting with or married to the father at the time of birth. Finally, we found no association between child support (maintenance) receipt and maternal repartnering, regardless of parental relationship status at the birth.

Increased household financial strain, the Great Recession and child health—findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

BackgroundThere is a growing body of evidence associating financial strain (FS) with poor health but most of this research has been cross-sectional and adult-focused. During the ‘Great Recession’ many UK...

Children\u2019s Development and Parental Input: Evidence From the UK Millennium Cohort Study

In this study, we use the UK Millennium Cohort Study to estimate a dynamic factor model of child development. Our model follows the children from birth until 7 years of age and allows for both cognitive and noncognitive abilities in children. We find a significant self-productivity effect in both cognitive and noncognitive development, as well as some evidence of dynamic dependence across different abilities. The activities that parents carry out with children at home (parental investment) have a significant effect on children’s development; we find substantial evidence of two distinct latent parental investment variables with differential effects across the two abilities.

The effect of a transition into poverty on child and maternal mental health: a longitudinal analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study

Whether or not relative measures of income poverty effectively reflect children's life chances has been the focus of policy debates in the UK. Although poverty is associated with poor child and maternal mental health, few studies have assessed the effect of moving into poverty on mental health. To inform policy, we explore the association between transitions into poverty and subsequent mental health among children and their mothers. In this longtitudinal analysis, we used data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, a large nationally representative cohort of children born in the UK between Sept 1, 2000, and Jan 11, 2002, who participated in five survey waves as they progressed from 9 months of age to 11 years of age. Our analysis included all children and mothers who were free from mental health problems and not in poverty when the children were aged 3 years. We only included singletons (ie, not twins or other multiple pregnancies) and children for whom the mother was the main respondent to the study. The main outcomes were child socioemotional behavioural problems (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) at ages 5 years, 7 years, and 11 years and maternal psychological distress (Kessler 6 scale). Using discrete time-hazard models, we followed up families without mental health problems at baseline and estimated odds ratios for subsequent onset of maternal and child mental health problems associated with first transition into poverty, while adjusting for confounders, including employment transitions. We further assessed whether or not change in maternal mental health explained any effect on child mental health. Of the 6063 families in the UK Millennium Cohort study at 3 years who met our inclusion criteria, 844 (14%) had a new transition into poverty compared with 5219 (86%) who remained out of poverty. After adjustment for confounders, transition into poverty increased the odds of socioemotional behavioural problems in children (odds ratio 1·41 [95% CI 1·02-1·93]; p=0·04) and maternal psychological distress (1·44 [1·21-1·71]; p<0·0001). Controlling for maternal psychological distress reduced the effect of transition into poverty on socioemotional behavioural problems in children (1·30 [0·94-1·79]; p=0·11). In a contemporary UK cohort, first transition into income poverty during early childhood was associated with an increase in the risk of child and maternal mental health problems. These effects were independent of changes in employment status. Transitions to income poverty do appear to affect children's life chances and actions that directly reduce income poverty of children are likely to improve child and maternal mental health. The Wellcome Trust and The Farr Institute for Health Informatics Research (Medical Research Council).

An Investigation of the Consistency of Parental Occupational Information in UK Birth Records and a National Social Survey

In the UK new sources of administrative social science data are unfolding rapidly but the quality of these new forms of data for sociological research is yet to be established. We investigate the quality and consistency of the parental occupational information that is officially recorded on administrative birth records by undertaking a comparison with information collected from the same parents in the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS). We detect a large amount of missing information in the birth records and a range of inconsistencies. We present an empirical analysis of MCS data using parental social class measures derived both from the birth records and the survey to assess the effects of these discrepancies. We conclude that parental occupational information from administrative birth records should not be assumed, a priori, to be suitable for sociological analyses and that further research should be undertaken into their consistency and accuracy.

Narratives of fathering young children in Britain: linking quantitative and qualitative analyses

ABSTRACTThe paper examines how in Britain the time fathers and couples spend in employment shifts in the first years of children’s lives, the conditions under which this happens and how fathers feel about and experience time with their families and time in paid work. In order to achieve these aims new longitudinal analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) is carried out together with secondary analysis of narrative case studies drawn from a qualitative study of Fatherhood across the Generations. By linking these datasets the paper examines the potential for corroboration and complementarity between different types of data. Further, it seeks to show how qualitative cases corroborate, elaborate and expand on the main employment trajectories in the MCS population of fathers and how these extend understandings of fathers’ experience of time within families.

Have health inequalities changed during childhood in the New Labour generation? Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

ObjectivesTo examine how population-level socioeconomic health inequalities developed during childhood, for children born at the turn of the 21st century and who grew up with major initiatives to tackle health...

Understanding social inequalities in childhood hospital admissions: longitudinal analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study

BackgroundChildhood hospital admission rates are increasing annually and are socially patterned. To inform policies to reduce hospital admissions in children, we aimed to assess risk factors for hospital admissions and the extent to which any socioeconomic inequality in admissions could be attenuated after accounting for risk factors. MethodsThis analysis used a sample of 11 085 children, across five sweeps from ages 9 months to 11 years, from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. The Millennium Cohort Study oversamples children living in disadvantaged areas and ethnic minority groups by means of a stratified clustered sampling design, and includes sampling weights to address attrition. The primary outcome for the present analysis was parental report of a child “ever being admitted to a hospital ward” (ever admitted) by age 11 years. Parents' educational attainment at the child's birth was the main exposure. Primary outcome data were analysed with Poisson regression, according to parental education, adjusted for covariates including perinatal risk factors, maternal and child health status, and environmental risk factors. Findings4615 parents (45·6%) reported that their child had been admitted to hospital by age 11 years. Children of parents with no educational qualifications were more likely than those of parents with degree level or higher qualifications to have been admitted (risk ratio 1·49, 95% CI 1·20–1·85), and there was evidence of a dose-response association. Controlling for risk factors attenuated the increased risk of admissions in children from households with the lowest educational attainment (adjusted risk ratio 1·09, 95% CI 0·93–1·29). In the fully adjusted analysis, low birthweight (1·24, 1·06–1·45) and longstanding illnesses (1·21, 1·18–1·24) were associated with an increased risk of being ever admitted, and female sex was protective (0·81, 0·75–0·88). Repeating the analysis with the main exposure as income produced similar results. InterpretationIn a contemporary representative sample of children in the UK, nearly half were admitted to hospital by age 11 years. Children of parents with no qualifications had around 50% greater risk of admission, largely explained by differences in childhood longstanding illness and low birthweight. Policies to reduce inequalities in these factors might also reduce inequalities in hospital admissions. Study limitations include the potential for differential self-reporting of hospital admission from households with different educational attainment, and not being able to explore service model differences. FundingNone.

Impact of moving into poverty on maternal and child mental health: longitudinal analysis of the Millennium Cohort Study

BackgroundThe UK Government has recently questioned whether relative measures of income poverty effectively reflect children's life chances. Although relative poverty is associated with poor maternal and child mental health, few studies have assessed the impact of moving into poverty on mental health outcomes. To inform this debate, we explored the association between transitions into poverty and mental health among children and their mothers using a nationally representative sample of children in the UK followed up between 2000 and 2012. MethodsOur analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study was based on 5877 singletons who participated in sweeps of the study at ages 9 months to 11 years and were not in relative poverty nor had maternal and child mental health problems when these measures were first recorded at 3 years old. The main outcomes were maternal psychological distress (Kessler Psychological Distress scale, K6) and child socioemotional behavioural problems (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) at ages 5, 7, and 11 years. The main exposure of interest was moving into relative poverty, defined as household equivalised income less than 60% of median household income, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development equivalence scale. Using discrete time-hazard models, we estimated odds ratios for subsequent maternal and child mental health of new transitions into poverty, while adjusting for baseline confounding. We further assessed how maternal mental health mediated any impact on child mental health. FindingsOverall 904 families (15·4%) experienced a new transition into poverty. After adjustment for confounders, transition into relative poverty increased the odds of maternal psychological distress (odds ratio 1·86, 95% CI 1·51–2·29) and socioemotional behaviour problems in children (1·37, 1·02–1·85). Controlling for maternal psychological distress reduced the odds of socioemotional behavioural problems in children, and rendered the association non significant (adjusted odds ratio 1·26, 95% CI 0·92–1·72). InterpretationIn this UK cohort, transitions into relative poverty, by use of the currently contested income-based definition, were associated with an increase in the risk of child and maternal mental health problems. Maternal mental health appeared to mediate the association between poverty transitions and child mental health. Actions to address child poverty are needed to tackle the mental health crisis in children in the UK. FundingSW, BB, and DT-R are funded by the Wellcome Trust.

Ethnic differences in longitudinal latent verbal profiles in the millennium cohort study.

Background: Development of verbal skills during early childhood and school age years is consequential for children’s educational achievement and adult outcomes. We examine ethnic differences in longitudinal latent verbal profiles and assess the contribution of family process and family resource factors to observed differences. Methods: Using data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study and the latent profile analysis, we estimate longitudinal latent verbal profiles using verbal skills measured 4 times from age 3–11 years. We investigate the odds of verbal profiles by ethnicity (reported in infancy), and the extent observed differences are mediated by the home learning environment, family routines, and psychosocial environment (measured at age 3). Results: Indian children were twice as likely (OR = 2.14, CI: 1.37–3.33) to be in the high achieving profile, compared to White children. Socioeconomic markers attenuated this advantage to nonsignificance. Pakistani and Bangladeshi children were significantly more likely to be in the low performing group (OR = 2.23, CI: 1.61–3.11; OR = 3.37, CI: 2.20–5.17, respectively). Socioeconomic and psychosocial factors had the strongest mediating influence on the association between lower achieving profiles and Pakistani children, whereas for Bangladeshi children, there was mediation by the home learning environment, family routines, and psychosocial factors. Conclusion: Family process and resource factors explain ethnic differences in longitudinal latent verbal profiles. Family resources explain verbal advantages for Indian children, whereas a range of home environment and socioeconomic factors explain disparities for Pakistani and Bangladeshi children. Future policy initiatives focused on reducing ethnic disparities in children’s development should consider supporting and enhancing family resources and processes.

Financial Strain, Parental Smoking, and the Great Recession: An Analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

IntroductionDuring the recent “Great Recession,” many families in the United Kingdom experienced increased financial strain (FS). The aim of this study was to determine if increases in FS, occurring over the period of the “Great Recession,” were associated with increased risks of persistent and relapsed tobacco use among parents.MethodsWe analyzed the Millennium Cohort Study, a longitudinal study of 18819 children born in the United Kingdom between 2000 and 2002. Surveys at 7 (T1, 2008) and 11 years (T2, 2012) spanned the “Great Recession.” Three measures of increased FS were defined; “became income poor” (self-reported household income dropped below the “poverty line” between T1 and T2); “developed difficulty managing” (parental report of being “financially comfortable” at T1 and finding it “difficult to manage” at T2); “felt worse off” (parental report of feeling financially “worse off” at T2, compared to T1). Poisson regression was used to estimate risk ratios (RR), adjusted RRs (aRR), and 95% confidence intervals for three outcomes: “persistent tobacco use,” “new reported tobacco use,” and “relapsed tobacco use.”ResultsParents in households which “became income poor” over the period of the “Great Recession” were significantly more likely to report “persistent tobacco use” (aRR = 2.17 [1.83–2.57]) or “new reported tobacco use” (aRR = 1.72 [1.04–2.83]). Ninety-five percent of “new reported tobacco users” had evidence of prior tobacco use suggesting the majority were “relapsed tobacco users.” Similar patterns were seen for those who “developed difficulty managing” and “felt worse off.”ConclusionsIncreased tobacco use among financially strained families has the potential to widen inequalities and undermine the public health policies that have had positive impacts on tobacco consumption in the United Kingdom.ImplicationsWhile several studies have shown that FS is associated with a higher prevalence of tobacco use, heavier smoking, and relapsed tobacco use, most of this work used cross-sectional data and none has focused on parents. We used longitudinal data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, between 2008 and 2012, to examine the association between FS and parental smoking. We show that parents who experienced increased FS, over the period of the “Great Recession,” were more likely to continue using tobacco or to relapse.

Early Maternal Time Investment and Early Child Outcomes

Using large longitudinal survey data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, this article estimates the relationship between maternal time inputs and early child development. We find that maternal time is a quantitatively important determinant of skill formation and that its effect declines with child age. There is evidence of long‐term effects of early maternal time inputs on later outcomes, especially in the case of cognitive skill development. In the case of non‐cognitive development, the evidence of this long‐term impact disappears when we account for skill persistence.

Early puberty in 11-year-old girls: Millennium Cohort Study findings

ObjectiveEarly puberty in girls is linked to some adverse outcomes in adolescence and mid-life. We address two research questions: (1) Are socioeconomic circumstances and ethnicity associated with early onset puberty?...

Early Father Involvement and Subsequent Child Behaviour at Ages 3, 5 and 7 Years: Prospective Analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

ObjectiveFathers are increasingly involved in care of their babies and young children. We assessed the association of resident fathers’ involvement with subsequent behaviour of their children, examining boys and girls separately.MethodsWe used longitudinal data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study for children born in 2000–2001, divided into three separate analysis periods: ages 9 months to 3 years, 3 to 5 years, and 5 to 7 years. By exploratory factor analysis of self-reported attitudes and engagement in caring activities, we derived composite measures of various types of father involvement at 9 months, 3 and 5 years. Where possible we created equivalent measures of mother involvement. Child behaviour was assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), which was completed by the mother when the child was aged 3, 5 and 7 years. We estimated gender-specific odds ratios for behaviour problems per quintile of father involvement, using separate logistic regression models for boys and girls in each analysis period. We controlled for a wide range of potential confounders: characteristics of the child (temperament and development at 9 months, and illness and exact age at outcome), equivalent mother involvement where appropriate, and factors related to socioeconomic status, household change, and parental well-being, where statistically significant.ResultsPaternal positive parenting beliefs at age 9 months and increased frequency of creative play at age 5 years were significantly associated with lower risk of subsequent behaviour problems (SDQ total difficulties) in both boys and girls (p<0.05), odds ratios ranging between 0.81 and 0.89 per quintile of involvement. No associations were observed for other composite measures of caring activity by the father at 9 months, 3 years or 5 years.ConclusionQuality of parenting, rather than the division of routine care between parents, was associated with child behavioural outcomes.

Predictors of self-reported alcohol use and attitudes toward alcohol among 11-year-old British children with and without intellectual disability.

Reducing harmful levels of alcohol consumption among children is an important public health concern internationally and in many high income countries. Little is known about levels and predictors of alcohol use among children with intellectual disability (ID). Secondary analysis of child self-report data at age 11 years collected in the UK's Millennium Cohort Study. Children with ID were significantly more likely to: have used alcohol in the last 4 weeks; to have had five or more alcoholic drinks on one occasion; to have had five or more alcoholic drinks or been intoxicated on one occasion; to have more positive attitudes about the psychological and social benefits of drinking; and to have less negative attitudes about the social and physical costs of drinking. Potentially harmful levels of drinking (intoxication or 5+ alcoholic drinks on one occasion) among children with ID were associated with child smoking, having friends who use alcohol, reporting that drinking makes it easier to make friends, and reporting that drinking reduces worrying. Children with ID accounted for 9% of all children with potentially harmful levels of drinking. Public health interventions to reduce potentially harmful drinking among children in general must recognise that children with ID are a potentially high risk group and ensure that interventions are appropriately adjusted to take account of their particular needs and situation. Future research in this area is needed to untangle the causal pathways between attitudes toward alcohol and alcohol use among children with ID and the extent to which levels of alcohol use and predictors of alcohol use may be moderated by severity of ID.

Effects of child long-term illness on maternal employment: longitudinal findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

Background: Maternal employment has increased in European countries, but levels of employment are lower among mothers whose children have a limiting long-term illness or disability. However, we do not know whether having a child with a limiting illness prevents take-up or maintenance of paid employment or whether ‘common causes’, such as lack of qualifications or maternal disability lead to both maternal unemployment and childhood illness. Longitudinal data have the potential to distinguish between these. Methods: We analyzed four waves (3, 5, 7 and 11 years) of the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) to examine the relationship between childhood limiting illness and maternal employment, unadjusted and adjusted for covariates. Multinomial regression models were used to test the association between child illness and trajectories of maternal employment. Fixed effects models assessed whether a new report of a child illness increased the odds of a mother exiting employment. Results: At every wave, maternal employment was more likely if the child did not have a limiting illness. After adjustment for covariates, childhood illness was associated with risks of continuous non-employment (adjusted Relative Risk Ratio = 1.46 [Confidence Interval: 1.21, 1.76]) or disrupted employment (aRRR = 1.26 [CI: 1.06, 1.49]), compared with entering or maintaining employment. If a child developed a limiting long-term illness, the likelihood of their mother exiting employment increased (adjusted Odds Ratio = 1.27 [CI: 1.05, 1.54]). Conclusions: ‘Common causes’ did not fully account for the association between child illness and maternal employment. Having a child with a limiting illness potentially reduces maternal employment opportunities.