UK Farms Research Articles

Handling and storing medicines on beef and dairy farms

Veterinary medicines that are stored on the majority of UK farms include antimicrobials, anthelmintics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and vaccines. All prescription veterinary medicines have storage requirements as directed on the...

Prevalence of excessive negative energy balance in commercial United Kingdom dairy herds

The objectives of this study were to determine the individual animal and herd level prevalence of excessive negative energy balance (eNEB) in commercial UK dairy herds. Between April 2006 and March 2015, blood samples from 84,369 individual cows from 1748 different UK farms were received by a commercial laboratory service specializing in dairy cow nutritional monitoring. Following removal of all potential duplicate cows, the final dataset comprised 69,161 unique individual cows. The prevalence of eNEB was determined using plasma thresholds of β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and glucose.Overall prevalence of subclinical ketosis (SCK) in the first 20 days of lactation was 28.5%, 17.3% and 11.7% using BHB thresholds of 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 mmol/L respectively. Prevalence of NEFA values ≥0.5 mmol/L in the last 10 days prior to calving was 26.0%, and 40.3% of cows had NEFA values ≥0.7 mmol/L in the first 20 days in milk (DIM). Combining BHB, NEFA and glucose showed that 52.0% of cows had one or more of the three biochemical measures of energy balance outside the respective threshold value in the last 10 days pre-calving, and 75.2% of cows showed a similar biochemical pattern in the first 20 DIM. The median herd prevalence of elevated BHB and/or NEFA was 37.5% in late pregnancy and 59.8% in the first 20 DIM, with substantial herd variation. Using multiple measures for the assessment of energy balance, this study has shown that eNEB affects substantial numbers of UK dairy cows.

What agricultural practices are most likely to deliver “sustainable intensification” in the UK?

AbstractSustainable intensification is a process by which agricultural productivity is enhanced whilst also creating environmental and social benefits. We aimed to identify practices likely to deliver sustainable intensification, currently available for UK farms but not yet widely adopted. We compiled a list of 18 farm management practices with the greatest potential to deliver sustainable intensification in the UK, following a well‐developed stepwise methodology for identifying priority solutions, using a group decision‐making technique with key agricultural experts. The list of priority management practices can provide the focal point of efforts to achieve sustainable intensification of agriculture, as the UK develops post‐Brexit agricultural policy, and pursues the second Sustainable Development Goal, which aims to end hunger and promote sustainable agriculture. The practices largely reflect a technological, production‐focused view of sustainable intensification, including for example, precision farming and animal health diagnostics, with less emphasis on the social and environmental aspects of sustainability. However, they do reflect an integrated approach to farming, covering many different aspects, from business organization and planning, to soil and crop management, to landscape and nature conservation. For a subset of 10 of the priority practices, we gathered data on the level of existing uptake in English and Welsh farms through a stratified survey in seven focal regions. We find substantial existing uptake of most of the priority practices, indicating that UK farming is an innovative sector. The data identify two specific practices for which uptake is relatively low, but which some UK farmers find appealing and would consider adopting. These practices are: prediction of pest and disease outbreaks, especially for livestock farms; staff training on environmental issues, especially on arable farms.

Short communication: A survey of grass-clover ley management and creation of a near infra-red reflectance spectroscopy equation to predict clover concentration

The purpose of the present study was, firstly, to examine current practice for the agronomy of grass-clover mixed swards used for silage-making in the UK, and secondly, to develop and validate a Near Infra-Red Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) equation capable of predicting clover concentration (CC) in undried and unmilled grass-clover silage samples. A calibration set of 94 grass-clover (white, trifolium repens, and red, trifolium pratense) mixture silage samples were sourced from UK farms and an accompanying questionnaire was used to obtain information on the sward agronomy used to produce each sample. Questionnaire data highlighted that (i) reducing the use of fertiliser inputs (ii) increasing uptake of new varieties, and (iii) increasing the farmer’s ability to measure botanical composition as potential strategies for improving the utilisation of clover in grass swards. Botanical composition was measured by hand separation for each sample and a new NIRS equation to predict CC was created and assessed using blind validation with an independent set of 30 grass-clover samples. The relative standard error of cross validation (SECV, as a percentage of the measured mean) of the optimised equation produced was 36.8%, and, in an independent validation test, the ratio of standard error of prediction to the standard deviation of the reference data set (RPD) was 1.56. The equation could be improved by increasing accuracy at high CCs but showed promise as a simple tool to assist growers in sward management decisions.

How do pig farms maintain low Salmonella prevalence: a case-control study.

Salmonella prevalence in UK pigs is amongst the highest in Europe, highlighting the need to investigate pig farms which have managed to maintain a low Salmonella seroprevalence. A total of 19 pig farms that had a consistently low (<10%) seroprevalence over 4 years (named Platinum farms) were compared against 38 randomly selected Control farms, chosen to match the same distribution of production types and geographical distribution of the Platinum farms. Each farm was visited and floor faeces and environmental samples were collected. It was shown that Control farms had a significantly higher median percentage of pooled faecal samples positive for Salmonella compared with the Platinum farms (12.1% and 0.4% for pooled faecal samples, respectively) and were more likely to have serovars of public health importance detected (S. Typhimurium/ monophasic variants or S. Enteritidis). Considering the comprehensive on-farm sampling, the identification of farms negative for Salmonella, along with the identification of those that had maintained low prevalence over a long period is important. The risk factor analyses identified pelleted feed, feed deliveries crossing farm perimeter and regular antibiotic use as associated with being a Control farm. Performance data indicated that Platinum farms were performing better for slaughter live weight than Controls. Limited assessments of available pig movement records suggested that the source of pigs was not key to Platinum status, but further study would be needed to confirm this finding. These results emphasise that maintaining very low prevalence on UK farms is achievable.

Brexit: How Will UK Agriculture Fare?

SummaryThere is little doubt that Brexit would have significant implications for UK agriculture, a sector with strong trade links to the EU and strong reliance on CAP income support. This article reports preliminary results from employing a Computable General Equilibrium Model, a Partial Equilibrium Model and Farm Level Models to explore selected trade and domestic policy scenarios post‐Brexit. These allow for the estimation of changes in producer prices, production and farm incomes against a baseline scenario of continued EU membership. Under a Free Trade Agreement with the EU, agricultural impacts are relatively modest. By contrast, unilateral removal of import tariffs has significant negative impacts on prices, production and incomes. Adoption of the EU's WTO tariff schedule for all imports favours net importers (e.g. dairy) and harms net exporters (e.g. sheep). Given the strong dependence of most UK farms on direct payments, their removal worsens negative impacts of new trade arrangements and offsets positive impacts. Impacts vary across different types and sizes of farm, but also regionally. However, the period of adjustment to new trade and domestic policy conditions may prove very challenging for a large number of farm businesses.

Hidden in plain sight - Multiple resistant species within a strongyle community

Ovine parasitic gastroenteritis is a complex disease routinely treated using anthelmintics. Although many different strongyle species may contribute to parasitic gastroenteritis, not all are equally pathogenic: in temperate regions, the primary pathogen is Teladorsagia circumcincta. In this study we investigated benzimidazole and ivermectin resistance on a commercial sheep farm in southeast Scotland. We assessed the impact of species diversity on the diagnosis of resistance using the faecal egg count reduction test and in vitro bioassays, and correlated the results with the frequency of benzimidazole resistance-associated genotypes measured in the T. circumcincta population by pyrosequencing of the β-tubulin isotype-1 gene.Faecal egg count reduction test results showed efficacies of 65% for albendazole and 77% for ivermectin, indicating moderate resistance levels on the farm. However, PCR speciation of the same populations pre- and post-treatment revealed that removal of susceptible species had masked the presence of a highly resistant population of T. circumcincta. Less than 25% of individuals in the pre-treatment populations were T. circumcincta, the remainder consisting of Cooperia curticei, Chabertia ovina, Oesophagostomum venulosum and Trichostrongylus spp. In contrast, post-treatment with albendazole or ivermectin, the majority (88% and 100% respectively) of the populations consisted of T. circumcincta. The egg hatch test for benzimidazole resistance and the larval development test for ivermectin resistance were carried out using eggs obtained from the same populations and the results were broadly consistent with the faecal egg count reduction test. Thirty individual T. circumcincta from each sampling time point were assessed for benzimidazole resistance by pyrosequencing, revealing a high frequency and diversity of resistance-associated mutations, including within the population sampled post-ivermectin treatment.These results highlight the potential diversity of parasite species present on UK farms, and their importance in the diagnosis of anthelmintic resistance. On this particular farm, we demonstrate the presence of a highly dual-resistant population of T. circumcincta, which was strongly selected by treatment with either benzimidazoles or ivermectin, while other potentially less pathogenic species were removed.

Modeling nitrous oxide emissions from three United Kingdom farms following application of farmyard manure and green compost

Organic fertilizers, such as manure and compost, are promising additions for synthetic fertilizers in order to increase soil fertility and crop yields. However, the organic fertilizers applied to soils may increase nitrous oxide (N2O, a greenhouse gas) emissions due to their lower C/N ratios, and therefore potentially contribute to global warming. Very few studies have used process-based models to assess the environmental advantages and drawbacks of compost soil amendments compared to other field treatments. In this study, the UK-DNDC model was modified for simulation of nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes emitted from the soils treated with green compost and farmyard manure at three UK farms (WE, PW and NW): one winter wheat and two grasslands. The results show that the annual overall N2O emissions were 1.45 kg N ha−1 y−1 for WE treated with farmyard manure, 0.71 for WE with green compost, 1.09910 for PW treated with farmyard manure, 0.94 for PW treated with green compost, 1.19 for NW treated with farmyard manure, and 1.18 for NW treated with green compost. A two dimensional linear model was developed to correlate nitrogen loading and soil pH for calculations of emissions and emission factors (EFs). The linear model could fit the emissions obtained from the UK-DNDC model well. The squares of correlation coefficients of the emissions between two models are 0.993 and 0.985 for farmyard manure and green compost, respectively. Analysis of correlation coefficients between N2O emissions and air temperature, precipitation as well as the time period between fertilizer application and sample measurement (PFS) for the three sites treated with farmyard manure and compost indicated that N2O emissions were mainly related to PFS. The modified DNDC model provides an approach to estimating N2O emissions from compost amended soils.

Effects of Environmental and Management-Associated Factors on Prevalence and Diversity of Streptococcus suis in Clinically Healthy Pig Herds in China and the United Kingdom.

Streptococcus suis, a global zoonosis of pigs, shows regional differences in the prevalence of human-associated disease for Asian and non-Asian countries. The isolation rates and diversities of S. suis on tonsils of healthy slaughter pigs in China and the United Kingdom were studied for effects of geography, temperature, pig age, and farm type. Isolates underwent analysis of molecular serotype and multilocus sequence type and virulence-associated genotyping. Although we found no significant difference in positive isolation rates between Chinese and UK farms, the prevalences of serotypes previously associated with human disease were significantly greater in the Chinese collection (P = 0.003). A significant effect of temperature was found on the positive isolation rate of the Chinese samples and the prevalence of human disease-associated serotypes in the UK S. suis population (China, P = 0.004; United Kingdom, P = 0.024) and on the prevalence of isolates carrying key virulence genes in China (P = 0.044). Finally, we found marked diversity among S. suis isolates, with statistically significant temperature effects on detection of multiple strain types within individual pigs. This study highlighted the high carriage prevalence and diversity of S. suis among clinically healthy pig herds of China and the United Kingdom. The significant effect of temperature on prevalence of isolation, human disease-associated serotypes, and diversity carried by individual pigs may shed new light on geographic variations in human S. suis-associated disease.IMPORTANCEStreptococcus suis is a global zoonotic pathogen and also a normal colonizer mainly carried on the tonsil of pigs. Thus, it is important to study the effect of environmental and management-associated factors on the S. suis populations in clinically healthy pigs. In this research, we investigated the similarities and differences between the S. suis populations obtained from different pig ages, seasons, and farm management systems and discovered the relationship between high climatic temperature and the prevalence of S. suis.

The impact of dairy cows' bedding material and its microbial content on the quality and safety of milk – A cross sectional study of UK farms

The introduction of bedding dairy cows on recycled manure solids (RMS) in the UK led to concern by competent authorities that there could be an increased, unacceptable risk to animal and human health. A cross-sectional study was designed to evaluate the microbial content of different bedding materials, when used by dairy cows, and its impact on the microbial content of milk. Data were collected from farms bedding lactating cows on sand (n=41), sawdust (n=44) and RMS (n=40). The mean duration of RMS use prior to sampling was 13months. Total bacterial count, and counts of Streptococcus/Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus cereus, thermophilic, thermoduric and psychrotrophic bacteria were determined in used bedding and milk. Samples were evaluated for the presence/absence of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp. and Yersinia enterocolitica. Data on milking practices were collected to investigate their potential to reduce microbial transfer from bedding to milk. There were substantial differences in bacterial counts both within and between bedding materials. However, there were no significant differences between bedding groups in counts in milk for any of the organisms studied, and no significant correlations between bacterial load in used bedding and milk. Fore-milking was associated with a reduced total bacterial count in milk. Dipping teats with disinfectant and drying, prior to milking, was associated with lower numbers of Streptococcus/Enterococcus spp. in milk. Disinfecting clusters between milking different cows was associated with a reduction in thermophilic and psychrotrophic counts in milk. This study did not provide evidence that use of RMS bedding increased the risk of presence of Y. enterocolitica, Salmonella spp. or L. monocytogenes in milk. However, the strength of this conclusion should be tempered by the relatively small number of farms on which Y. enterocolitica and Salmonella spp. were isolated. It is concluded that, despite the higher bacterial load of RMS, its use as bedding for lactating dairy cows need not be associated with a higher bacterial load in milk than the use of sand or sawdust. However, this finding must be interpreted in the light of the relatively recent introduction of RMS as a bedding material on the farms studied. Teat preparation provides a control point for the potential transfer of microorganisms from bedding to milk. The detection of zoonotic pathogens in a small proportion of milk samples, independent of bedding type, indicates that pasteurisation of milk prior to human consumption remains an important control measure.

Exploring drivers of the usage of anticoagulant rodenticides on UK farms

ABSTRACTAnticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are considered inhumane, show increasingly limited efficacy due to acquired resistance, and carry environmental consequences associated with non-target species uptake. In a questionnaire study of 499 UK farms that all deployed chemical rodenticide we found a high mean reliance (79%), on second generation ARs with just over half of the respondents using no other rodent control methods. Additional methods where deployed, alone or in combination, included predation (41%), kill-trap deployment (16%) and shooting (1%). Nearly 40% of all respondents deployed rodenticides year-round. There was no evidence to suggest that “tidy-farm” measures, such as clearing food spills and minimising on-farm rodent harbourage sites aimed at minimising rodent-associated problems, were associated with a lower likelihood of year-round deployment; in fact trends in our analyses suggested the opposite. We therefore encourage operators to fully evaluate the true necessity of rodenticide deployment before AR use.

Piglet nasal microbiota at weaning may influence the development of Glässer's disease during the rearing period.

BackgroundThe microbiota, the ensemble of microorganisms on a particular body site, has been extensively studied during the last few years, and demonstrated to influence the development of many diseases. However, these studies focused mainly on the human digestive system, while the populations in the respiratory tract have been poorly assessed, especially in pigs. The nasal mucosa of piglets is colonized by an array of bacteria, many of which are unknown. Among the early colonizers, Haemophilus parasuis also has clinical importance, since it is also the etiological agent of Glässer’s disease. This disease produces economical losses in all the countries with pig production, and the factors influencing its development are not totally understood. Hence, the purpose of this work was to characterize the nasal microbiota composition of piglets, and its possible role in Glässer’s disease development.ResultsSeven farms from Spain (4 with Glässer’s disease and 3 control farms without any respiratory disease) and three farms from UK (all control farms) were studied. Ten piglets from each farm were sampled at 3–4 weeks of age before weaning. The total DNA extracted from nasal swabs was used to amplify the 16S RNA gene for sequencing in Illumina MiSeq. Sequencing data was quality filtered and analyzed using QIIME software. The diversity of the nasal microbiota was low in comparison with other body sites, showing a maximum number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) per pig of 1,603, clustered in five phyla. Significant differences were found at various taxonomical levels, when the microbiota was compared regarding the farm health status. Healthy status was associated to higher species richness and diversity, and UK farms demonstrated the highest diversity.ConclusionsThe composition of the nasal microbiota of healthy piglets was uncovered and different phylotypes were shown to be significantly altered in animals depending on the clinical status of the farm of origin. Several OTUs at genus level were identified over-represented in piglets from control farms, indicating their potential as probiotics. Although we provide relevant data, fully metagenomic approaches could give light on the genes and metabolic pathways involved in the roles of the nasal microbiota to prevent respiratory diseases.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2700-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Analysis of putative resistance gene loci in UK field populations of Haemonchus contortus after 6 years of macrocyclic lactone use

Sheep farmers in the UK rely on strategic anthelmintic use to treat and control gastrointestinal roundworms in their flocks. However, resistance to these drugs is now widespread and threatens the sustainability of sheep production. The mechanisms underlying resistance to the most commonly used class, the macrocyclic lactones, are not known and sensitive diagnostic tools based on molecular markers are not currently available. This prohibits accurate surveillance of resistance or assessment of strategies aimed at controlling its spread. In this study, we examined four UK field populations of Haemonchus contortus, differing in macrocyclic lactone treatment history, for evidence of selection at ‘candidate gene’ loci identified as determining macrocyclic lactone resistance in previously published research. Individual worms were genotyped at Hc-lgc-37, Hc-glc-5, Hc-avr-14 and Hc-dyf-7, and four microsatellite loci. High levels of polymorphism were identified at the first three candidate gene loci with remarkably little polymorphism at Hc-dyf-7. While some between-population comparisons of individual farms with and without long-term macrocyclic lactone use identified statistically significant differences in allele frequency and/or fixation index at the Hc-lgc-37, Hc-glc-5 or Hc-avr-14 loci, we found no consistent evidence of selection in other equivalent comparisons. While it is possible that different mechanisms are important in different populations or that resistance may be conferred by small changes at multiple loci, our findings suggest that these are unlikely to be major loci conferring macrocyclic lactone resistance on UK farms or suitable for diagnostic marker development. More powerful approaches, using genome-wide or whole genome sequencing, may be required to define macrocyclic lactone resistance loci in such genetically variable populations.

Root length densities of UK wheat and oilseed rape crops with implications for water capture and yield.

Root length density (RLD) was measured to 1 m depth for 17 commercial crops of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and 40 crops of winter oilseed rape [Brassica napus; oilseed rape (OSR)] grown in the UK between 2004 and 2013. Taking the critical RLD (cRLD) for water capture as 1cm cm(-3), RLDs appeared inadequate for full water capture on average below a depth of 0.32 m for winter wheat and below 0.45 m for OSR. These depths compare unfavourably (for wheat) with average depths of 'full capture' of 0.86 m and 0.48 m, respectively, determined for three wheat crops and one OSR crop studied in the 1970s and 1980s, and treated as references here. A simple model of water uptake and yield indicated that these shortfalls in wheat and OSR rooting compared with the reference data might be associated with shortfalls of up to 3.5 t ha(-1) and 1.2 t ha(-1), respectively, in grain yields under water-limited conditions, as increasingly occur through climate change. Coupled with decreased summer rainfall, poor rooting of modern arable crops could explain much of the yield stagnation that has been observed on UK farms since the 1990s. Methods of monitoring and improving rooting under commercial conditions are reviewed and discussed.

The risk factors affecting the development of vent pecking and cannibalism in free-range and organic laying hens

AbstractInjurious pecking remains one of the biggest animal welfare and economic challenges for free-range egg producers. This prospective epidemiological study investigated the development of vent pecking (VP) and cannibalism on 62 free-range and organic UK farms (119 flocks). Flocks were visited at 25 (± 5) and 40 (± 5) weeks of age. Rates of VP were recorded and farmers were asked whether they had observed cannibalism in their flocks. Environmental and management data were collected for each flock. Risk factors associated with these behaviours were modelled using MLwiN. VP was observed in 19.5 and 29.9% of flocks, at mean rates of 0.35 and 0.21 bouts per bird per h, at 25 and 40 weeks, respectively. Cannibalism was reported at 22.6% of visits. The odds of flocks showing VP or cannibalism increased with rate of severe feather pecking (SFP). VP was more likely to be observed in laying houses with more and/or longer pop holes and where feed was scattered on the floor. Providing more aerial perch length, or perches &gt; 0.5 m in height, was associated with increased risk of VP. When SFP was excluded from the model, likelihood of VP was higher in flocks fed pelleted feed. All of these may provide a useful basis from which to derive management strategies to reduce the risk of VP and thus improve the welfare of laying hens. However, it is important to remember that this study does not elucidate the causal relationships between these variables, and further work is needed to understand the mechanism behind these associations.

Analysis of the Management and Costs Associated with Rearing Pregnant Dairy Heifers in the UK from Conception to Calving

Good management of the pregnant heifer is crucial to ensure that she is well grown and healthy and calves down easily before joining the milking herd. This study collected primary data on all aspects of heifer management on 101 UK farms during heifer pregnancy from conception to calving including farm factors and associated costs of system inputs. A cost analysis workbook was developed to calculate the cost of rearing per heifer for each of the study farms. Associations between cost of rearing and farms factors were determined using linear regression and analysis of variance. Heifers had a mean age of conception of 509 d (range 365 - 700 d) and an age at first calving of 784 d (range 639 - 973 d). The mean total cost of rearing during pregnancy was ￡450.36 (range ￡153.11 to ￡784.00) with a mean daily cost of ￡1.64 (range ￡0.56 to ￡2.86). The inputs contributing the most to cost were feed (32.7%), labour (23.8%) and slurry disposal (11.2%). Total purchased and homegrown feed and grazing contributed between 25.5% and 65.4% of total costs with a mean contribution of 43.6%. The cost of rearing was lowest in spring calving herds and highest in all year round calving herds with intermediate values in autumn and multi block calving herds. The main variables influencing the cost were the number of days spent at grass, age at first calving, calving pattern, breed, herd size and region. Each extra day in age at first calving increased the mean cost of rearing during pregnancy by ￡0.33/d whereas every extra day at grass reduced the cost by ￡1.75/d.

Description of organic pig production in Europe

With the aim to identify health and welfare strategies in organic pig production, a description of the different organic production systems was realized in eight European countries (Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland and UK). This description was based on the following features: numbers of organic farms and organic pigs, market shares, housing and management characteristics, feeding characteristics, main health problems and relevant differences to the EU regulation existing at the time of the project. The results were primarily based on statistics, country-specific regulations as well as on expert and stakeholder interviews. Organic farming and organic pig production are rapidly developing in European countries. The European country with the highest number of organic pigs is Germany. Organic pig production represents a minor part of the whole pig production in all surveyed countries. All features that were analysed varied greatly between countries with the most striking one being the housing of pigs that can be completely outdoors on pasture for most UK farms and always indoors with an access to an outdoor run, during part of their life, for most farms of German speaking countries.

Modelling the economics of farm-based anaerobic digestion in a UK whole-farm context

Anaerobic digestion (AD) technologies convert organic wastes and crops into methane-rich biogas for heating, electricity generation and vehicle fuel. Farm-based AD has proliferated in some EU countries, driven by favourable policies promoting sustainable energy generation and GHG mitigation. Despite increased state support there are still few AD plants on UK farms leading to a lack of normative data on viability of AD in the whole-farm context. Farmers and lenders are therefore reluctant to fund AD projects and policy makers are hampered in their attempts to design policies that adequately support the industry. Existing AD studies and modelling tools do not adequately capture the farm context within which AD interacts. This paper demonstrates a whole-farm, optimisation modelling approach to assess the viability of AD in a more holistic way, accounting for such issues as: AD scale, synergies and conflicts with other farm enterprises, choice of feedstocks, digestate use and impact on farm Net Margin. This modelling approach demonstrates, for example, that: AD is complementary to dairy enterprises, but competes with arable enterprises for farm resources. Reduced nutrient purchases significantly improve Net Margin on arable farms, but AD scale is constrained by the capacity of farmland to absorb nutrients in AD digestate.

An observational study involving ewe postmortem examination at a fallen stock collection centre to inform flock health interventions

Effective sheep flock health plans must be underpinned by flock-specific diagnostic information and should make use of wider national flock health information. However, information on disease prevalence at flock level is often incomplete. This is despite the fact that protocols to diagnose common sheep diseases are well established and cost effective. Annual ewe mortality rates in the UK are estimated at 3–8 per cent (Johnston and others 1980, Scott 2007). The profile of diseases which contribute to mortality and involuntary culling in adult ewes in the UK flock is at present probably best estimated using Veterinary Investigation Diagnosis Analysis (VIDA) data (Gibbens and others 2008). This is generated by the Animal Health Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA) endemic disease scanning surveillance programme, which examines 500–700 ewes annually (VIDA 2012). However, the sample size, especially for carcases, is small, and the programme may have inherent biases (Nevel and Stark 2009) with under-representation of some important endemic diseases. By law, all fallen stock from UK farms must be collected for appropriate disposal by a licensed collector. This study aimed to investigate the diagnostic potential of this material, with an emphasis on adult ewes, and to consider how such information might be applied to improve sheep health, welfare and productivity. Between February 2012 and January 2013, a total of 106 adult ewes, collected from farms throughout the northeast of England, were examined postmortem during 11 sessions at a fallen stock collection centre. All postmortem examinations were performed by two experienced veterinary surgeons including at least one of the authors, whose competence in postmortem examination was gained during six years at …

Renewable enterprises on UK farms: Assessing levels of uptake, motivations and constraints to widespread adoption

A postal questionnaire survey of 2000 farmers revealed that of the 393 farmers who responded, 14% had adopted RE (RE) enterprises, with half of adopters reporting slight to significant improvements in farm business performance in 2009. Solar panels were the most popular of the RE technologies available to farmers, compared to biomass related technologies. Of current non adopters, 65% may decide to invest in RE technologies over the next five years, with less than 10% likely to choose biomass related enterprises. It emerges that for current non adopters, their strategic preferences for future investment are biased towards solar and wind energy production suggesting a misalignment with government priority RE options. Motivations for adoption of RE enterprises are entrepreneurial in nature. Three major categories of constraints are identified ranging from economic, institutional/cognitive and normative/social acceptability constraints to investment. The policy implications of these findings are discussed.