Udder Area Research Articles

Control of Rhipicephalus microplus ticks in dairy cattle using homeopathic therapy

Background: The negative impact of Rhipicephalus microplus infestations on cattle farming is well-known. The main control method is the use of ixodicides, which have as side effects environmental contamination, the selection of resistant lineages, and toxicity. Their use is also prohibited in systems that produce organic and agroecological food. Such factors reinforce the importance of strengthening research related to the application of homeopathic principles in animal production. Aim: In this setting, this work aimed at assessing the efficacy of the homeopathic therapy to control Rhipicephalus microplus ticks in dairy cattle. Methodology: 63 crossbred and Girolando breed cows, 1 and 9 years of age, naturally infested by ticks and created under a semi-intensive system in three farms (1, 2, and 3) were assayed. The animals were divided into three control groups and three treated groups, using the drug product EndectoSigo® (Psorinum 12 CH, Sulphur 12CH, Ledum palustre 12 CH, Cina 12 CH e Apis mell. 7CH) at a dose of 10 g/animal/day added to mineral and/or food supplement. The visual counting of teleogines with the size equal to or higher than four millimeters in diameter was performed in the neck or udder area of the animal. Pluviometry and registration of ixodicide baths were performed as well. The means obtained were compared by using ANOVA test and Tukey’s test. Results: The mean number of teleogines on farm 1 was significantly lower (p<0.05) in the treatment group. As for farms 2 and 3, there was no statistical difference between the groups (treated and control); however, it was observed that two ixodicide baths were required in the control group (farm 2). The pluviometry did not interfere with the manifestation. Conclusion: It was concluded that the homeopathic treatment has the efficacy required to control this tick in cattle and can be an alternative to the use of chemical ixodicides.

Relationship between Morphometric and Milk Production Characters in Ongole Cattle

Background: Selecting dairy type Ongole cows based on their phenotypic characters like coat colour, stature, external appearance which are being poorly correlated to milk production and reproduction is a common practice in Andhra Pradesh. In absence of the production records, predicting the association between milk yield and morphometry forms a potential tool for selection of dairy type Ongole cattle. Methods: The data on morphometric characters and milk production was recorded on 211 elite lactating Ongole cows in the breeding tract of Andhra Pradesh and correlation and regression coefficients were estimated. Result: The lactation milk yield and lactation length were positively (P less than 0.01) correlated with udder area, udder length, face length and cephalic index and negatively correlated with skin fold thickness and tail length. The regression coefficients of udder area, skin fold thickness, face length and tail length for lactation milk yield and lactation length were found to be significant (P less than0.01). The present study concluded that the udder area, skin fold thickness, face length and tail length may be given more weightage in selection of dairy type Ongole cows.

Impacts of self- and cross-sucking on cattle health and performance.

Background:Improvement of dairy farms economics requires intensification, automatic milking, and artificial rearing methods. The ability to express normal behavior is one of the five freedoms to achieve animal welfare, whereas the display of abnormal behaviors is considered as an indicator of poor welfare. Cross-sucking is defined as sucking any body parts of pen-mate calves, whereas inter-sucking in cows is defined as sucking the udder or udder area. Previous studies showed that self- and cross-sucking during the calf-hood period could be a causal factor of milk sucking in adulthood.Aim:To investigate the effects of cross-sucking among calves and inter-sucking in cows on animal health status and performance.Materials and Methods:Gathering information from customized questionnaires, the study of the breeding records, recording of self- and cross-sucking behaviors, and health status of calves till weaning, and dairy cows before milking were performed in two governmental farms under the same managemental conditions in Sohag and Qena governorates.Results:Cross-sucking appeared in calves at the 2nd week of age followed by abscesses at ears and navels that were observed within cross-sucker calves. Milk sucking was higher in primiparous than multiparous cows during the second lactation period, as primiparous cows start to suck mostly around the 4th month of milking. Mastitis and elongation of the front teats were observed in sucker cows. Suffered animals had body condition scoring 3.5 or less. Interestingly, most of the cows displaying self-sucking were sucking another cow and were experienced self- or cross-sucking in their calf-hood. The use of pronged nose-rings was ineffective in preventing milk sucking and all cows were ultimately culled at the end of the season.Conclusion:The results of this study demonstrate the health problems of abnormal oral behaviors in terms of developed ears and navels abscesses in cross-sucker calves, and mastitis and teat deformities in milk-sucker cows. Furthermore, indexes that lead to oral satisfaction should be taken in priorities of farm managers to effectively reduce or prevent cross-sucking in calves. Culling of cows and heifers suffering from sucking would be the ultimate uneconomic alternative in case of persistent suckers.

Influences of season, parity, lactation, udder area, milk yield, and clinical symptoms on intramammary infection in dairy cows

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influences of season, parity, lactation, udder area, milk yield, and clinical symptoms on bacterial intramammary infection (IMI) in dairy cows. A total of 2,106 mastitis pathogens in 12 species were isolated from 125 dairy farms distributed in 30 different cities in China, and the information about these factors was recorded at the same time. Mastitis pathogens were isolated from 63.43% of the milk samples, whereas Streptococcus agalactiae accounted for 38.61% of all pathogens, followed by Str. dysgalactiae (28.16%), Staphylococcus aureus (19.10%), Escherichia coli (6.90%), and other pathogens (7.23%). According to our investigation, IMI was more common in spring with the isolation rate of pathogens at 81.04%, and lowest in winter (52.34%). Cows were more likely to be infected by environmental pathogens (E. coli or Str. uberis) in summer, in rear quarters and in cows with higher daily milk yield or lower somatic cell count. In addition, Str. dysgalactiae exhibited a higher prevalence with increased parity. Different clinical symptoms of quarters with bacterial IMI were seen in this study, and mastitis pathogens were isolated from healthy quarters.

Prediction possibility of milk yield from udder measurements using digital image analysis on holstein cows

A photographic survey of 43 multiparous lactating cows was carried out by recording the images between morning and evening milking time (around noon time) using digital camera from posterior angle. Images were then processed using Image Tools V.3.00 software to determine Udder measurements (UMs) of cows from the images in centimetres. The linear parameters recorded were rear udder depth (UD), rear udder width (UW) and rear udder area (UA). Regression analysis of milk yield on each of the independent variables was performed. Regression coefficients, for all UMs, taken together were 65.5%. The single regression coefficients were 23.0, 0.2 and 61.0for UD, UW and UA, respectively. The correlation coefficients between milk yield and UD, UW and UA were 0.48 (P >0.05), 0.04 (P >0.05) and 0.78 (P <0.05), respectively. The results showed that, the milk yieldof cows could be predicted using digital image, using udder area as a parameter. However, the prediction possibility was higher when all UMs were used.

Relationship between mammary morphology traits and milk yield of Sicilo-Sarde dairy sheep in Tunisia

Sicilo-Sarde is a local breed from northern Tunisia resulting from crossing Sarda and Comisana dairy sheep and is traditionally used for cheese production after lamb weaning. A sample of 52 adult Sicilo-Sarde lactating ewes was used for studying their udder morphological traits and milk yield potential during weeks 4–8 (milking–suckling period) and 10 (milking period) of lactation. Daily milk yield was estimated on a daily basis by using the double oxytocin injection method 4 h after machine-milking at d 30 and 45. Udder and teat morphology were also measured at d 45 of lactation. Cisternal area (by ultrasonography) and udder compartments (cisternal and alveolar milk) were evaluated 8 h after milking by using atosiban and oxytocin on d 72 of lactation. Milk yield averaged 0.56 ± 0.10 L/d and ewes had small (volume, 496 ± 28 mL) and healthy udders (CMT, <1), with medium sized teats (length, 18.5 ± 4.9 mm; diameter, 10.0 ± 2.0 mm) attached at 45 ± 10°. A drop in milk production (49%) was found in the transition from suckling (day 30) to milking (week 10). Udder cisterns were multilocular and small sized (half udder area, 11.6 ± 4.5 cm 2), although cisternal milk accounted for 54% of the total milk in the udder. Correlation between cisternal milk and cisternal area was moderate ( R 2 = 0.48; P < 0.05). Lag time and total milking time were 1.9 ± 0.1 and 31 ± 5 s, respectively. In conclusion, the Sicilo-Sarde ewes evaluated showed medium sized cisterns and teats which were morphologically adequate for machine milking, although milk production needs to be improved.

Thermographic study of the ovine mammary gland during different working vacuum levels

Thermography is a non-contact, non-invasive technique that detects surface heat emitted as infrared radiation. Because skin temperature reflects the status of underlying tissue metabolism and blood circulation, abnormal thermal patterns can signify areas of superficial inflammation or circulatory impairments (i.e. congestion). In sheep different methods have been adopted to measure udder blood circulation and the effect of cold exposure and lactation on the distribution of blood flow. The effect of milking procedures on udder and teat skin temperature was investigated in cows through thermographic scanning. Thermography results in a very useful tool to evaluate, estimate and differentiate short and longer-term tissue reactions to machine milking. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of working vacuum level on udder and teat temperature changes during milking procedures and the recovery by indirect monitoring of the circulatory impairments of teat tissue via infrared thermography. Two groups of six lactating Sarda ewes were milked experimentally at two vacuum levels (28 and 42 kPa) and same pulsation parameters (120 cycles/min and 60% ratio). Thermographic images (Flir System, ThermaCam P25, sensitivity of 0.08 °C) of posterior udder area (PUA) and teats (teat base – TB; mid teat – MT and teat tip – TT) were taken pre-milking (PM), during milking (M) (only for PUA), and immediately after milking (IAM) up to 2 minutes after milking (AM+). Temperatures were recovered by processing the thermographic images in ThermaCam Researcher Basic 2.8 SR-1 Software (Flir System). The PUA showed a drop of 1°C in both treatments between PM and M. After milking, values did not show remarkable changes. The vacuum level effect on teats temperature results to be different between treatments. Results during IAM indicate a general drop of the teats temperatures and specifically for high vacuum level (from 39.82 to 37.92°C and from 39.71 to 37.75°C for low and high vacuum level respectively). During AM+ (monitored up to 60 sec - AM +30; up to 90 sec - AM+60 and up to 120 sec – AM+90) the increase of teat temperatures were different (P vs 37.96°C and AM+90: 39.02 vs 38.58°C for low and high vacuum level respectively). Differences among TB, MT and TT were evident also at AM+90 only for the high vacuum level while in low one, at the same time, it was persistent only the difference between TT and TB. The higher teat temperature for the low vacuum level could be attributable to a faster return to a normal condition of the blood flow in all teat locations. Teat circulation impairments due to milking procedures need further surveys.

Genetic parameters for abnormal sucking traits in Austrian Fleckvieh heifers

Cross-sucking and intersucking are considered abnormal behaviours in cattle and constitute a common problem in dairy farming. Cross-sucking in calves is defined as sucking any body parts of another calf whereas intersucking in heifers and cows is defined as sucking the udder or udder area. The aim of this study was to determine the genetic variability for abnormal sucking behaviour by estimating genetic parameters and examining individual differences between sires with large progeny groups. By means of a questionnaire, cattle breeders in the federal state Lower Austria were requested to identify all currently kept animals which are known of either inter- or cross-sucking (both defined as the same binary trait 'sucking' with 0 and 1 referring to the absence and presence of this abnormal behaviour) or allowing sucking (also treated as a binary trait, scored as 1 if an animal was known of allowing herd mates to suck and 0 otherwise). Records of 1222 farms and 13,332 dual purpose Simmental females aged between 21 and 700 days were investigated applying a linear animal model with fixed herd x year x season and random genetic animal effect and a threshold sire model with the herd x year x season effect being treated as random. In total, 8.6% and 4.1% of all calves/heifers were observed sucking and allowing sucking, respectively. Heritabilities of 0.040 +/- 0.014 and 0.007 +/- 0.006 (linear animal model) and 0.116 +/- 0.041 and 0.026 +/- 0.024 (threshold model) were found for the traits sucking and allowing sucking, respectively. Breeding values were estimated applying the same models for the trait sucking. Taking all 254 sires into account, the Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients between breeding values estimated by linear animal and sire threshold model were 0.86 and 0.80. Thus, little difference was observed between the two methods.

Relationship between udder and teat conformation and milk yield performance in dairy cows pre- and post-milking

The objectives of this study were to determine the relationship between udder floor area (UFA) and milk production traits in dairy cows, pre- and post-milking, as well as to examine the usefulness of a simple method of measuring UFA. The absolute reduction (AR, cm2) and relative reduction (RR, %) in UFA post-milking relative to pre-milking was calculated. Absolute reduction was influenced by breed and lactation stage, but not by parity of the cows (P &lt; 0.05). There was no effect of breed and stage of lactation on the RR of UFA. Moderate correlations were observed between absolute reduction of UFA and daily milk yield (r2 = 0.422), lactation milk yield (r2 = 0.426), and absolute fat yield (r2 = 0.515) (P &lt; 0.01 and P &lt; 0.05). Moderate and weak correlations were found between RR of UFA and daily milk yield (r2 = 0.335) (P &lt; 0.01), AR of the udder area and the 305-d lactation milk yield (r2 = 0.326) (P &lt; 0.10). It was concluded that measuring UFA using the method described may be useful for the selection of dairy cattle mammary conformation traits. Key words: Dairy cow, udder and teat conformation, milk production traits, measurement technique

Thermographic study of the ovine mammary gland during different working vacuum levels

Thermography is a non-contact, non-invasive technique that detects surface heat emitted as infrared radiation. Because skin temperature reflects the status of underlying tissue metabolism and blood circulation, abnormal thermal patterns can signify areas of superficial inflammation or circulatory impairments (i.e. congestion). In sheep different methods have been adopted to measure udder blood circulation and the effect of cold exposure and lactation on the distribution of blood flow. The effect of milking procedures on udder and teat skin temperature was investigated in cows through thermographic scanning. Thermography results in a very useful tool to evaluate, estimate and differentiate short and longer-term tissue reactions to machine milking. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of working vacuum level on udder and teat temperature changes during milking procedures and the recovery by indirect monitoring of the circulatory impairments of teat tissue via infrared thermography. Two groups of six lactating Sarda ewes were milked experimentally at two vacuum levels (28 and 42 kPa) and same pulsation parameters (120 cycles/min and 60% ratio). Thermographic images (Flir System, ThermaCam P25, sensitivity of 0.08 °C) of posterior udder area (PUA) and teats (teat base – TB; mid teat – MT and teat tip – TT) were taken pre-milking (PM), during milking (M) (only for PUA), and immediately after milking (IAM) up to 2 minutes after milking (AM+). Temperatures were recovered by processing the thermographic images in ThermaCam Researcher Basic 2.8 SR-1 Software (Flir System). The PUA showed a drop of 1°C in both treatments between PM and M. After milking, values did not show remarkable changes. The vacuum level effect on teats temperature results to be different between treatments. Results during IAM indicate a general drop of the teats temperatures and specifically for high vacuum level (from 39.82 to 37.92 °C and from 39.71 to 37.75 °C for low and high vacuum level respectively). During AM+ (monitored up to 60 sec - AM +30; up to 90 sec - AM+60 and up to 120 sec – AM+90) the increase of teat temperatures were different (P<0.05) between vacuum levels (AM+30: 38.12 vs 37.54 °C; AM+60: 38.19 vs 37.96 °C and AM+90: 39.02 vs 38.58 °C for low and high vacuum level respectively). Differences among TB, MT and TT were evident also at AM+90 only for the high vacuum level while in low one, at the same time, it was persistent only the difference between TT and TB. The higher teat temperature for the low vacuum level could be attributable to a faster return to a normal condition of the blood flow in all teat locations. Teat circulation impairments due to milking procedures need further surveys.

Relationships among Udder Characteristics, Milk Yield, and Nonyield Traits

A total of 1604 udder measurements of the area bounded by the four teats was collected on 147 cows to determine relationships among udder area, indices of udder collapsibility, milk yield, rates of milk flow, California Mastitis Test scores, persistency of lactation, and visual appraisal of udder conformation. Direct measurements of the udder were highly repeatable both within and among lactations. Indices of udder collapsibility were not as repeatable. Correlations among udder measurements were large and positive. Milk yield on the day of measure was highly and positively correlated with udder measurements, but correlations with mature equivalent milk yield were lower. Correlations among udder measurements, rates of milk flow, persistency of lactation, and many traits of udder conformation were small. Larger udders were associated generally with higher mastitis test scores, with deeper udders that were more bulgy in front and looser in rear and with flatter udder floors. Indices of udder collapsibility were unrelated to visual appraisal of udder quality.

Autecology of the Adult Horn Fly, Haematobia Irritans (L.), (Diptera: Muscidae)

During the horn fly seasons of 1959 and 1960, experiments were conducted to determine the relationship of weather conditions to horn fly populations on three breeds of dairy heifers, to correlate the effect of the macroenvironment on the microenvironment within the 1/2 in. mantle of a heifer, and also to correlate the locations of horn flies within this mantle with various factors of the microenvironment. Usually there was a significant difference between the number of horn flies on Holstein and that on Guernsey and Jersey heifers. The flies generally preferred the dark—colored areas of biocolored cattle during daylight hours, and the black of the Holstein to the tan of the Guernsey. When the macrotemperature was above 85°C, many of the flies were found on the white skin of the belly and udder area of heifers. During inclement weather the flies were observed on both the white and dark—colored areas of all heifers. Macrotemperature and relative humidity influenced the horn fly populations within the biocenose. The apparently preferred macroclimate for macroclimate for horn flies was: temperature 73 to 80°F, relative humidity 65 to 90%, scattered light showers, and no wind. The flies apparently sought certain microenvironmental conditions most commonly observed on Holsetin heifers. Within the mantle of microenvironment, horn flies appeared to prefer an air temperature of about 85°F, a skin temperature of about 97°F, and a relative humidity of about 65%. When such conditions were not available to the flies on the sides and backs of Holstein heifers, the flies were usually found in near—optimum conditions along the belly midline for each of the three breeds of heifers.

Genetical aspects of maximum rate of flow during milking

SummaryRates of flow of milk during milking have been observed on twin and single-born dairy cows with the aid of a device for continuous recording of weight of milk extracted. Each cow has been characterized by a maximum rate arrived at by averaging morning and evening observations on 2 days. Only this maximum rate has been studied.Repeatability was high (0·8–0·9) whether measured from day to day or from lactation to lactation. Maximum rate of flow was 10–16% higher in second than in first lactations. The range extended from under 2 lb/min to over 7 lb/min.Lactation yield of milk varied significantly with rate, rising about 50 gal for an increase of 1 lb/min. This relation is reduced or eliminated by taking into account by partial regression analysis either maximum weekly yield or the increase from the second to the peak week of lactation.Although the higher yielding cows had larger udder areas bounded by the four teats, the regression of 305-day milk yield on rate was not changed much by taking udder area into account. Cows with short teats milked faster and had higher yields than cows with longer teats.Differences in yield among the four quarters widened slightly between 1 and 3 months of lactation regardless of rate of flow, except possibly in the three slowest milking cows. In these the differences increased three times as much as in the other cows. The wider the inter-quarter differences in yield the less the proportion of milk obtained at the maximum rate.Heritability of maximum rate of flow derived from observations on paired singleborn cattle and twins was 85%. Field data would probably yield a value of 60–70%. Appropriate selection of breeding stock would effectively alter rate of flow, but there is no reason yet to expect yield of milk to change except perhaps by reducing the incidence of very slow milking cows.