Typically Developing Group Research Articles

Amblyopia treatment outcomes in patients with neurodevelopmental disorders

To compare amblyopia treatment outcomes between patients with neurodevelopmental disorders and their typically developing peers. Of 2,311 patients diagnosed with amblyopia between 2010 and 2014 at Boston Children's Hospital, 460 met inclusion criteria (age 2-12 with anisometropic, strabismic, or mixed amblyopia [interocular difference (IOD) ≥2 lines]). Treatment and visual outcomes were analyzed according to neurodevelopmental status: neurodevelopmental delay (DD) versus typical development (TD). The DD group (n = 54) and TD group (n = 406) were similar in demographics, amblyogenic risk factors, baseline visual measures, prescribed therapy, and adherence (P ≥ 0.10). Between-visit follow-up time was longer for the DD group (0.65 [0.42- 0.97] years) than for the TD group (0.5 [0.36-0.82] years; P = 0.023). IOD improved similarly in each group by the last visit (DD, -0.15 logMAR [-0.31 to -0.02]; TD, -0.2 logMAR [-0.38 to -0.1]; P= 0.09). Each group reached amblyopia resolution by the last visit at similar frequencies (DD, 23/54 [43%]; TD, 211/406 [52%]; P > 0.2). DD diagnosis did not independently influence amblyopia resolution (HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.53-1.12; P = 0.17), but each additional month of interval time between follow-up visits reduced the likelihood of resolution by 2.7% (HR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.51-0.87; P = 0.003). Patients with DD and those with TD responded similarly to amblyopia therapy; however, follow-up intervals were longer in patients with DD and correlated with the likelihood of persistent amblyopia, suggesting that greater efforts at assuring follow-up may benefit patients with DD.

Pathways to peer interaction in ASD and TD through individual and dyadic joint-action motor abilities.

Any social engagement, especially with peers, requires children's effective activation of social and motor mechanisms. Children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often display dysfunctions both in individual motor functioning (e.g., fine/gross) and in dyadic joint action (JA), where two partners coordinate movement toward a shared goal. Yet, these mechanisms' contribution to peer interaction has been underexplored. This study examined the contribution of individual motor functioning and JA performance to peer interaction (cooperation, attentiveness, social engagement, and dyadic quality), while comparing children and adolescents' (youngsters) with ASD versus those with typical development (TD). Results indicated more competent peer interaction in TD than in ASD. Interestingly, only the ASD group showed significant maturation with age for social engagement and dyadic interaction quality, calls for further examination of developmental trajectories. However, even the oldest participants with ASD continued to lag behind the youngest TD group. Also, findings indicated that better individual motor functioning and JA performance explained better peer interactive competence; yet, the contribution of individual motor functioning to social cooperation and dyadic quality was moderated by JA performance. Thus, youngsters' individual motor system was found to be an important contributor to peer interaction in those with low to moderate JA coordination capabilities, but not for those with high JA. Results emphasize possible distinct contributions of each motor mechanism and their interaction for facilitating social interaction, hence, encouraging incorporation of individual and dyadic motor skills explicitly into social interaction interventions for youngsters ASD.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Receptive Picture Vocabulary Test for Persian-speaking Children

Background and Objectives: Measuring children’s receptive vocabulary skills requires the use of valid and reliable tools. This study aims to assess the reliability of the receptive picture vocabulary test for Persian-speaking children (RPVT-P). Methods: In the first phase of this cross-sectional, descriptive, and analytical study, 434 normal children aged 30 to 71 months participated. In the second phase of the study, 2 groups participated, 16 children with Down syndrome (DS) a mentally age-matched typically developing (TD) peers. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s α coefficient), construct validity, and discriminant validity of the RPVT-P was evaluated. Results: Cronbach’s α was calculated as 0.825, indicating good internal consistency for the total score of the RPVT-P. The Spearman correlation coefficient of 0.83 showed a positive correlation between age and the total score of the RPVT-P (P=0.0000). The correlation between most of the subtest scores and the total score of the RPVT-P was found from 0.70 to 0.87, showing acceptable construct validity. A significant difference was observed between the DS and TD groups for the total scores of the RPVT-P (P=0.0000), indicating good discriminant validity of the RPVT-P. Conclusion: The RPVT-P is a test with acceptable validity and reliability to determine the ability of preschool Persian-speaking children in receptive vocabulary.

Assessment of the glymphatic function in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Whether the alternation of the glymphatic system exists in neurodevelopmental disease still remains unclear. In this study, we investigated structural and functional changes in the glymphatic system in the treatment-naïve attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) children by quantitatively measuring the Virchow-Robin spaces (VRS) volume and diffusion tensor image-analysis along the perivascular space (DTI-ALPS). Forty-seven pediatric ADHD patients and 52 age- and gender-matched typically developing (TD) children were recruited in this prospective study. The VRS volume was calculated using a semi-automated approach in axial T2-weighted images. Diffusivities along the x-, y-, and z-axes in the projection, association, and subcortical neural fiber areas were measured. The ALPS index, a ratio that accentuated water diffusion along the perivascular space, was calculated. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the quantitative parameters; Pearson's correlation was used to analyze the correlation with clinical symptoms. The cerebral VRS volume (mean, 15.514mL vs. 11.702mL) and the VRS volume ratio in the ADHD group were larger than those in the TD group (all p < 0.001). The diffusivity along the x-axis in association fiber area and ALPS index were significantly smaller in the ADHD group vs. TD group (mean, 1.40 vs.1.59, p < 0.05 after false discovery rate adjustment). Besides, the ALPS index was related to inattention symptoms of ADHD (r = - 0.323, p < 0.05). Our study suggests that the glymphatic system alternation may participate in the pathogenesis of ADHD, which may be a new research direction for exploring the mechanisms of psycho-behavioral developmental disorders. Moreover, the VRS volume and ALPS index could be used as the metrics for diagnosing ADHD. Considering the potential relevance of the glymphatic system for exploring the mechanisms of attention deficit/hyperactivity, the Virchow-Robin spaces volume and the analysis along the perivascular space index could be used as additional metrics for diagnosing the disorder. • Increased Virchow-Robin space volume and decreased analysis along the perivascular space index were found in the treatment-naïve attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder children. • The results of this study indicate that the glymphatic system alternation may have a valuable role in the pathogenesis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. • The analysis along the perivascular space index is correlated with inattention symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder children.

RESPIRATORY FUNCTION IN CHILDREN WITH CEREBRAL PALSY

Purpose: to characterize the pulmonary function of children with cerebral palsy (CP) and to compare it with children with typical development (TD). Methods: the study was with 20 children TD and 21 CP, both sexes aged between 6-12 years (9.41 ± 1.47), with cognitive ability to perform the spirometry test. Wilcoxon / Mann Whitney test hypothesis compare the values obtained in both groups and intragroup in relation to gender and in the functional classifications of CP. Results: TD group showed a significant difference and higher spirometry values in males, whereas for children with CP there was no difference in relation to sex. In addition, the TD group demonstrated better values of forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow (PEF) than the CP group. There were significant differences and better spirometric values for children with CP less compromised in the comparisons between the functional, topographic levels, and functional gait pattern. Conclusion: there is a tendency towards obstructive and restrictive breathing patterns in the children with CP, observable mainly by the decrease in FVC, FEV1, and PEF compared DT. CP children with worse functionality have greater respiratory impairments.

Reduced Implicit but not Explicit Knowledge of Cross-Situational Statistical Learning in Developmental Dyslexia.

Although statistical learning (SL) has been studied extensively in developmental dyslexia (DD), less attention has been paid to other fundamental challenges in language acquisition, such as cross-situational word learning. Such investigation is important for determining whether and how SL processes are affected in DD at the word level. In this study, typically developed (TD) adults and young adults with DD were exposed to a set of trials that contained multiple spoken words and multiple pictures of individual objects, with no information about word-referent correspondences provided within a trial. Nonetheless, cross-trial statistical relations could be exploited to learn word-referent mappings. The degree of within-trial reference uncertainty and the novelty of to-be-learned objects (novel or familiar) were varied under different learning conditions. The results show that across all conditions, young adults with DD were significantly impaired in their ability to exploit cross-trial regularities in co-occurring visual-auditory streams to discover word-referent mappings. Observed impairments were most pronounced when within-trial reference uncertainty was the highest. Subjective measures of knowledge awareness revealed greater development of implicit but not explicit knowledge in the TD group than in the DD group. Together, these findings suggest that the SL deficit in DD affects fundamental language learning challenges at the word level and points to greater reliance on explicit processes due to impaired implicit associative learning among individuals with DD. Such a deficit is likely to influence spoken language acquisition, and in turn affect literacy skills, in people with DD.

학령기 고기능 자폐범주성장애 아동의 발화유형 분석

This study investigated the types of utterances and analyzed the final functioning ending among Korean school-age children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (ASD) by using the story retelling task. A total of fifteen children with ASD and fifteen vocabulary ability–matched typically developing (TD) children participated in the study. The utterances according to final and connective ending, fragment utterance, and incompletion for grammar were analyzed. The ASD group exhibited lower performances than the TD group on the utterance type analysis, however, there were no significant differences between the two groups. The results reveal that the ASD group produce similar utterance types in story retelling task with the language age-matched TD children. Furthermore, the results indicate that the utterance type analysis can be useful in assessing the language ability of school-age children with ASD.

Multisensory Texture Perception in Individuals with Williams Syndrome.

The sensory profile of people with Williams syndrome (WS) is characterised by atypical visual and auditory perceptions that affect their daily lives and learning. However, no research has been carried out on the haptic perception, in particular in multisensory (visual and haptic) situations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the communication of texture information from one modality to the other in people with WS. Children and adults with WS were included, as well as typically developing (TD) participants matched on chronological age (TD-CA), and TD children matched on mental age (TD-MA). All participants (N = 69) completed three matching tasks in which they had to compare two fabrics (same or different): visual, haptic and visuo-haptic. When the textures were different, the haptic and visual performances of people with WS were similar to those of TD-MA participants. Moreover, their visuo-haptic performances were lower than those of the two TD groups. These results suggest a delay in the acquisition of multisensory transfer abilities in individuals with WS. A positive link between MA and visual and visuo-haptic abilities only in people with WS suggests that they could benefit from an early intervention to develop their abilities to process and transfer multisensory information.

A machine learning approach for understanding the metabolomics response of children with autism spectrum disorder to medical cannabis treatment

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition impacting behavior, communication, social interaction and learning abilities. Medical cannabis (MC) treatment can reduce clinical symptoms in individuals with ASD. Cannabis-responsive biomarkers are metabolites found in saliva that change in response to MC treatment. Previously we showed levels of these biomarkers in children with ASD successfully treated with MC shift towards the physiological levels detected in typically developing (TD) children, and potentially can quantify the impact. Here, we tested for the first time the capabilities of machine learning techniques applied to our dynamic, high-resolution and rich feature dataset of cannabis-responsive biomarkers from a limited number of children with ASD before and after MC treatment and a TD group to identify: (1) biomarkers distinguishing ASD and TD groups; (2) non-cannabinoid plant molecules with synergistic effects; and (3) biomarkers associated with specific cannabinoids. We found: (1) lysophosphatidylethanolamine can distinguish between ASD and TD groups; (2) novel phytochemicals contribute to the therapeutic effects of MC treatment by inhibition of acetylcholinesterase; and (3) THC- and CBD-associated cannabis-responsive biomarkers are two distinct groups, while CBG is associated with some biomarkers from both groups.

Application of Preschool Auditory Processing Assessment Scale in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

To investigate the characteristics of auditory processing (AP) in preschool children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using Preschool Auditory Processing Assessment Scale (hereafter referred to as "auditory processing scale"). A total of 41 children with ADHD and 41 typically developing (TD) children were assessed using the auditory processing scale, SNAP-IV rating scale, and Conners' Kiddie Continuous Performance Test (K-CPT). The auditory processing scale score was compared between the TD and ADHD groups. The correlations of the score with SNAP-IV and K-CPT scores were assessed. Compared with the TD group, the ADHD group had significantly higher total score of the auditory processing scale and scores of all dimensions except visual attention (P<0.05). In the children with ADHD, the attention deficit dimension score of the SNAP-IV rating scale was positively correlated with the total score of the auditory processing scale (rs30=0.531, P<0.05; rs27=0.627, P<0.05) as well as the scores of its subdimensions, including auditory decoding (rs=0.628, P<0.05), auditory attention (rs=0.492, P<0.05), and communication (rs=0.399, P<0.05). The hyperactivity-impulsivity dimension score of the SNAP-IV rating scale was positively correlated with the hyperactivity-impulsivity dimension score of the auditory processing scale (rs=0.429, P<0.05). In the children with ADHD, the attention deficit dimension score of the K-CPT was positively correlated with the total score (rs30=0.574, P<0.05; rs27=0.485, P<0.05) and the hyperactivity-impulsivity dimension score (rs=0.602, P<0.05) of the auditory processing scale. Preschool children with ADHD have the risk of AP abnormalities, and the auditory processing scale should be used early for the screening and evaluation of AP abnormalities in children.

Reduced neurite density index in the prefrontal cortex of adults with autism assessed using neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging.

Core symptoms of autism-spectrum disorder (ASD) have been associated with prefrontal cortex abnormalities. However, the mechanisms behind the observation remain incomplete, partially due to the challenges of modeling complex gray matter (GM) structures. This study aimed to identify GM microstructural alterations in adults with ASD using neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) and voxel-wise GM-based spatial statistics (GBSS) to reduce the partial volume effects from the white matter and cerebrospinal fluid. A total of 48 right-handed participants were included, of which 22 had ASD (17 men; mean age, 34.42 ± 8.27 years) and 26 were typically developing (TD) individuals (14 men; mean age, 32.57 ± 9.62 years). The metrics of NODDI (neurite density index [NDI], orientation dispersion index [ODI], and isotropic volume fraction [ISOVF]) were compared between groups using GBSS. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) metrics and surface-based cortical thickness were also compared. The associations between magnetic resonance imaging-based measures and ASD-related scores, including ASD-spectrum quotient, empathizing quotient, and systemizing quotient were also assessed in the region of interest (ROI) analysis. After controlling for age, sex, and intracranial volume, GBSS demonstrated significantly lower NDI in the ASD group than in the TD group in the left prefrontal cortex (caudal middle frontal, lateral orbitofrontal, pars orbitalis, pars triangularis, rostral middle frontal, and superior frontal region). In the ROI analysis of individuals with ASD, a significantly positive correlation was observed between the NDI in the left rostral middle frontal, superior frontal, and left frontal pole and empathizing quotient score. No significant between-group differences were observed in all DTI metrics, other NODDI (i.e., ODI and ISOVF) metrics, and cortical thickness. GBSS analysis was used to demonstrate the ability of NODDI metrics to detect GM microstructural alterations in adults with ASD, while no changes were detected using DTI and cortical thickness evaluation. Specifically, we observed a reduced neurite density index in the left prefrontal cortices associated with reduced empathic abilities.

Relationships between Affect Recognition, Empathy, Alexithymia, and Co-Occurring Conditions in Autism.

Prior studies show differences in empathy and affect-recognition ability between those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing (TD) individuals. Autistic individuals also exhibit increased behavioral, gastrointestinal, and sleep issues. In the current study, we explored the differences in empathy and affect recognition between the ASD and TD groups; and we investigated their associations with conditions co-occurring in ASD. A total of 54 TD and 56 ASD children (8-17 years) were included. As compared to the TD group, the ASD group showed lower scores for affect recognition and perspective taking (PT) and higher scores for personal distress (PD). Interestingly, results from hierarchical linear regressions suggested that disparities in the PD and PT between the groups were primarily attributable to attenuated levels of alexithymia, rather than being mediated by the presence of an autism diagnosis. Differences in affect-recognition ability, however, were mediated by both an autism diagnosis and alexithymia. We also found significant correlations between empathy and affect recognition and measures of related conditions common in ASD. Alexithymia, hence, contributes to difficulties in empathy while both alexithymia and autism are associated with affect-recognition ability in ASD. Additionally, the association between affect recognition and empathic ability with co-occurring conditions in ASD needs to be considered during assessments and interventions.

Disrupted Small-World Networks in Children with Drug-Naïve Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A DTI-Based Network Analysis

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders, while the potential neurological mechanisms are poorly understood. To explore the alterations in the white matter (WM) structural connectome in children with drug-naïve ADHD, forty-nine ADHD and 51 age- and gender-matched typically developing (TD) children aged 6–14 years were enrolled. WM structural connectivity based on deterministic diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was constructed in 90 cortical and subcortical regions, and topological parameters of the resulting graphs were calculated. Network metrics were compared between two groups. The concentration index and the total cancellation test scores of digit cancellation test were used to evaluate clinical symptom severity in ADHD. Then, a partial correlation analysis was performed to explore the relationship between significant topologic metrics and clinical symptom severity. Compared to TD group, ADHD showed an increase in the characteristic path length (Lp), normalized clustering coefficient (γ), small worldness (σ), and a decrease in the global efficiency (Eglob) (all p < 0.05). Furthermore, ADHD showed reduced nodal centralities mainly in the regions of default mode network (DMN), central executive network (CEN), basal ganglia, and bilateral thalamus (all p < 0.05). After performing Benjamini-Hochberg’s procedure, only the left orbital part of superior frontal gyrus and the left caudate were statistically significant (p < 0.05, FDR-corrected). In addition, the concentration index of ADHD was negatively correlated with the nodal betweenness of the left orbital part of the middle frontal gyrus (r = −0.302, p = 0.042). Our findings revealed an ADHD-related shift of WM network topology toward “regularization” pattern, characterized by decreased global network integration, which is also reflected by changed nodal centralities involving DMN, CEN, basal ganglia, and bilateral thalamus. ADHD could be understood by examining the dysfunction of large-scale spatially distributed neural networks.

Early Visual Deprivation Impairs Functional Development of the Visual Ventral Stream.

To probe the dynamic alternations of neural networks in real-time visual processing after visual deprivation (VD) removal. A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted. Twenty children with a history of early binocular VD caused by congenital cataracts and 20 matched typically developing (TD) children were enrolled. The event-related potential (ERP) data were obtained via high-density electroencephalography. ERP data were analyzed based on three components (P1, N170, and P2), three test conditions (objects, human faces, and Chinese characters), and peak time and region of interest (ROI) chosen on a grand average head map collapsed from the averaged waveform of each group. Source localization and alpha power spectrum density were applied to define the functional pattern of brain areas and evaluate the attention function. The VD group showed significantly lower P1 amplitudes than the TD group under all conditions in peak ROIs, which were situated in the left occipito-temporal region. For both VD and TD groups, there were strong N170 effects in the character and human face conditions in the component's peak ROIs. Furthermore, source mapping indicated that the VD group generally showed significantly lower activation in the visual cortex and ventral stream, whereas the beyond network areas (mostly frontal areas) intensively participated in functional compensation in the VD group. The VD group showed significant poststimulus alpha desynchronization in object recognition. Our research described the mechanisms of visual networks after early binocular VD removal. Our findings may provide a new basis for the poor visual recovery after early binocular VD removal and offer clues for visual recovery strategies.

A multimodal approach can identify specific motor profiles in autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

It is still unclear whether and to what extent the motor difficulties are specific to autism. This study aimed to determine whether a multimodal assessment of motor skills could accurately discriminate autistic children from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and typically developing (TD) peers. Seventy-five children, aged 7-13, equally divided into three groups, were assessed with the developmental coordination disorder questionnaire (DCDQ), the movement assessment battery for children 2 (MABC2), the sensorimotor subtests of NEPSY-II, and the kinematic analysis of a reach-to-drop task. Principal component analysis (PCA) on DCDQ subscales revealed one factor-Caregiver Report-, whereas MABC2/NEPSY-II scores identified three factors-namely, Object Interception and Balance, Motor Imitation, and Fine-Motor Skills-. Lastly, PCA on kinematic variables identified four factors: PC1, loaded by the parameters of velocity and acceleration throughout the task, PC2 and PC3 involved the temporal parameters of the two submovements, and PC4 accounted for the wrist inclination at ball drop. When comparing autistic and TD children, Caregiver Report and Motor Imitation factors predicted membership with 87.2% of accuracy. In the model comparing ADHD and TD groups, Caregiver Report and Fine-Motor Skills predicted membership with an accuracy of 73.5%. In the last model, the Object Interception and Balance factor differentiated autistic children from ADHD with an accuracy of 73.5%. In line with our previous findings, kinematics did not differentiate school-aged autistic children from ADHD and TD peers. The present findings show that specific motor profiles in autism and ADHD can be isolated with a multimodal investigation of motor skills.

Comorbidity and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders and ADHD in Children: A Clinically-Based Study

Objective: We examined the characteristics and heritability of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and ADHD through a twin study. Method: Our sample included 44 twins, with at least one twin diagnosed with ASD. Among the participants, 30 had ASD, and 18 of them also had coexisting ADHD. Results: We observed higher concordance rates for ASD in monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins (67% vs. 25%), indicating a genetic influence on ASD. Inattentive symptoms of ADHD were more prevalent in monozygotic twins. The ASD + ADHD group exhibited significantly higher Social Responsiveness Scale scores, indicating greater social difficulties compared to the ASD and typical development groups. Twin analyses revealed that shared genetic factors accounted for 72.25% of the variance in both ASD and ADHD symptoms. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the comorbidity of ASD and ADHD may indicate increased severity and can be explained by shared genetic factors underlying both conditions.

Grammatical comprehension in language and communication disorders

ABSTRACT Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) have traditionally been considered separate disorders, although some similarities and overlaps in certain aspects of language have been detected. In this paper, we compare the deficits in receptive grammar in these two disorders. We analyse the proportion of grammatical errors in relation to semantic complexity in 84 children divided into four groups: children with autism language impairment (ALI), with autism language normal (ALN), with DLD, and with typical development (TD), all groups with the same age of receptive vocabulary. The results show significant differences in the comprehension of grammatical structures, both simple (canonical and non-reversible) and complex (non-canonical and reversible). Children with ASD and DLD show different language profiles depending on the syntactic complexity. In the simplest structures, no differences are found between the groups, starting at an equivalent vocabulary age of 7:8 years. However, there are differences between the ALI and DLD groups with respect to the TD group in the more complex structures, starting at an equivalent vocabulary age of 3 years. Therefore, both groups ALI and DLD present the greatest difficulties compared to ALN and TD. The paper discusses the importance of attending to these differences, since the repercussion of comprehension difficulties increases as children grow.

Increased glutamate and glutamine levels and their relationship to astrocytes and dopaminergic transmissions in the brains of adults with autism

Increased excitatory neuronal tones have been implicated in autism, but its mechanism remains elusive. The amplified glutamate signals may arise from enhanced glutamatergic circuits, which can be affected by astrocyte activation and suppressive signaling of dopamine neurotransmission. We tested this hypothesis using magnetic resonance spectroscopy and positron emission tomography scan with 11C-SCH23390 for dopamine D1 receptors in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). We enrolled 18 male adults with high-functioning autism and 20 typically developed (TD) male subjects. The autism group showed elevated glutamate, glutamine, and myo-inositol (mI) levels compared with the TD group (p = 0.045, p = 0.044, p = 0.030, respectively) and a positive correlation between glutamine and mI levels in the ACC (r = 0.54, p = 0.020). In autism and TD groups, ACC D1 receptor radioligand binding was negatively correlated with ACC glutamine levels (r = − 0.55, p = 0.022; r = − 0.58, p = 0.008, respectively). The enhanced glutamate-glutamine metabolism might be due to astroglial activation and the consequent reinforcement of glutamine synthesis in autistic brains. Glutamine synthesis could underly the physiological inhibitory control of dopaminergic D1 receptor signals. Our findings suggest a high neuron excitation-inhibition ratio with astrocytic activation in the etiology of autism.

Abnormal spontaneous brain activity in females with autism spectrum disorders.

To date, most studies on autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have focused on sample sets that were primarily or entirely composed of males; brain spontaneous activity changes in females remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore changes in the brain spontaneous neural activity in females with ASD. In this study, resting-state functional magnetic resonance images (rs-fMRI) of 41 females with ASD and 41 typically developing (TD) controls were obtained from the ABDIE database. The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), fractional ALFF (fALFF), and regional homogeneity (ReHo) of the two groups were calculated to detect the regional brain activity. A two independent sample t-test was used to analyze differences between the ASD and TD groups and a p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant after false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted between social responsiveness scale (SRS) scores and the local activity of significantly different brain regions. Compared with the typically developing (TD) group, the values of ALFF and ReHo were significantly increased in the left superior temporal gyrus (STG), while the values of ReHo were significantly decreased in the left superior frontal gyrus (SFG), left middle occipital gyrus (MOG), bilateral superior parietal lobule (SPL), and bilateral precuneus in the females with ASD group. Correlation analysis showed that the ReHo of the right precuneus was positively correlated to the total SRS, social communication, and autistic mannerisms. Spontaneous activity changes in females with ASD involved multiple brain regions and were related to clinical characteristics. Our results may provide some help for further exploring the neurobiological mechanism of females with ASD.

Visuospatial perspective taking in people with Down syndrome

Visuospatial perspective taking (VPT) refers to the process of mentally representing a viewpoint different from one’s own. It is related to mental rotation and theory of mind and helps to support some complex spatial activities such as wayfinding. Despite research advances in spatial cognition, little is known about VPT in people with Down syndrome (DS). Here, we examined VPT in people with DS. A total of 38 individuals with DS (aged 12–25 years old) and nonverbal ability-matched typically developing (TD) children (aged 4–9 years old) participated. They completed two VPT tasks: the classic Piagetian Three Mountains Task and a modified version of the “Dog Task” (Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 1992). For both groups, the Three Mountains Task was more difficult than the Dog Task, implying the impact of task complexity on assessing VPT. However, the overall performance did not differ between the TD and DS groups in either VPT task. Implications of the results were discussed.