Typical Occasion Research Articles

Cannabis ‘tinny’ houses in New Zealand: implications for the use and sale of cannabis and other illicit drugs in New Zealand

To examine the impact of the emergence of cannabis 'tinny' houses on the use and sale of cannabis and other illicit drugs in New Zealand. A national sample of 5800 people aged 13-45 years were interviewed about their drug use using a computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) system as part of the 2001 National Drug Survey. A question on cannabis procurement was used to create two subgroups of cannabis buyers for further analysis: (i) 'tinny' house buyers--those who had purchased 'some', 'most' or 'all' of their cannabis from a 'tinny' house (n = 145) and (ii) personal market buyers--those who had purchased 'none' or 'hardly any' of their cannabis from a 'tinny' house (n = 342). The two groups of cannabis buyers were compared for a range of variables. ['Tinny' houses are residential properties converted for the 'supermarket' sale of cannabis and other illicit drugs to anyone who attends the premises with cash.] Those purchasing cannabis from 'tinny' houses were significantly more likely than those purchasing cannabis from the personal market to smoke one joint or more on a typical occasion, to purchase cannabis weekly or more often, to purchase small weights of cannabis, to be sold lower quality cannabis than they paid for, to know their cannabis dealer sells other illicit drug types and to use high potency strains of cannabis. There was no significant difference between the 'tinny' house and personal market cannabis buyers with respect to the frequency of cannabis use, prices paid for the same weights of cannabis, levels of other victimization, levels of other drug use or levels of encouragement by cannabis sellers to purchase other drug types. Those purchasing cannabis from 'tinny' houses were more likely to be aged 15-17 years old and to be of Maori ethnicity than those purchasing cannabis from the personal market. Cannabis 'tinny' houses attracted more adolescent and more Maori clientele. However, 'tinny' houses did not appear to be contributing to the spread of the use of other drug types either through the active marketing of other drugs or by having these drugs available for sale at these locations.

Web‐based screening and brief intervention for hazardous drinking: a double‐blind randomized controlled trial

Strong evidence exists for the efficacy of screening and brief intervention for reducing hazardous drinking. However, problems have been highlighted with respect to its implementation in health-care systems, not least of which is a reluctance of some doctors to discuss alcohol proactively with their patients. To determine the efficacy of a novel web-based screening and brief intervention (e-SBI) to reduce hazardous drinking. A double-blind randomized controlled trial. A university student health service. A total of 167 students (17-26 years) were recruited in the reception area and completed a 3-minute web-based screen including the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) questionnaire. Of these, 112 tested positive, and 104 (52 females) who consented to follow-up were included in the trial. Drinking frequency, typical occasion quantity, total volume, heavy episode frequency (females > 80 g ethanol, males > 120 g ethanol), number of personal problems, an academic problems score. Participants were randomized to 10-15 minutes of web-based assessment and personalized feedback on their drinking (intervention, n = 51) or to a leaflet-only control group (n = 53). Mean baseline AUDIT scores for control and intervention groups were 16.6 (SD = 6.0) and 16.6 (SD = 5.7). At 6 weeks, participants receiving e-SBI reported significantly lower total consumption (geometric mean ratio = 0.74; 95% confidence interval: 0.56-0.96), lower heavy episode frequency (0.63; 0.42-0.92) and fewer personal problems (0.70; 0.54-0.91). At 6 months personal problems remained lower (0.76; 0.60-0.97), although consumption did not differ significantly. At 6 months, academic problems were lower in the intervention group relative to controls (0.72; 0.51-1.02). e-SBI reduced hazardous drinking among university students, to an extent similar to that found for practitioner-delivered brief interventions in the general population. e-SBI offers promise as a strategy to reduce alcohol-related harm in a way that is non-intrusive, appealing to the target group, and capable of being incorporated into primary care. Research is required to replicate the findings, to determine the duration of intervention effects, and to investigate the mechanisms by which the intervention operates.

Gender convergence in alcohol consumption and related problems: issues and outcomes from comparisons of New Zealand survey data

This paper aims to compare women's and men's alcohol consumption patterns and alcohol-related problems in New Zealand in 1995 and 2000, by age groups. Secondary aims are to consider the findings in relation to debates on the gender convergence hypothesis regarding the link between gender convergence in alcohol consumption and possible explanations, such as social role convergence and policy changes. Data were collected in two general population surveys conducted in New Zealand in 1995 (n = 4232) and 2000 (n = 5113) using the same questionnaire. Quantity consumed on a typical drinking occasion, volume of absolute alcohol consumed per annum, proportions drinking 20+ litres per annum, proportion of total consumption consumed in heavy drinking occasions, frequency of consumption, proportion who drink enough to feel drunk at least once a week, proportions reporting three or more alcohol-related problems and attitudes to intoxication. Evidence for gender convergence was found across a range of measures of alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems. In the 20-39-year age group quantities of alcohol consumed on a typical occasion and the related measures of volume, drunkenness and problems all showed convergence. In the groups over 40 years of age convergence occurred in relation to frequency of drinking. In the groups below 20 years, which consumed relatively high quantities and where the differences in consumption between gender groups were relatively small, further convergence did not occur. Gender convergence took place in New Zealand from 1995 to 2000.

A pilot study of a computer‐assisted cell‐phone interview (CACI) methodology to survey respondents in households without telephones about alcohol use

An intrinsic drawback with the use of a computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) survey methodology is that people who live in households without a connected landline telephone are excluded from the survey sample. This paper presents a pilot of the feasibility of a computer-assisted cell-phone interview (CACI) methodology designed to survey people living in households without a telephone about alcohol use and be compatible with a larger telephone based alcohol sample. The CACI method was found to be an efficient and cost competitive method to reach non-telephone households. Telephone ownership was found to make a difference to the typical occasion amount of alcohol consumed, with respondents from households without telephones drinking significantly more than those with telephones even when consumption levels were controlled for socio-economic status. Although high levels of telephone ownership in the general population mean these differences may not have any impact on population alcohol measures they may be important in sub-populations where telephone ownership is lower.

Relation between heavy and binge drinking and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in Novosibirsk, Russia: a prospective cohort study

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced cardiovascular mortality, but binge drinking is thought to be detrimental. We examined effects of heavy and binge drinking in a population with high rates of binge drinking. We did a prospective cohort study in Novosibirsk, Russia, in 6502 men aged 25-64 years at baseline who were examined in WHO MONICA (monitoring trends and determinants in cardiovascular disease surveys) in 1985/86, 1988/89, and 1994/95, and in a pilot study in 1984. We assessed alcohol intake and drinking pattern by questionnaire; binge drinking was defined as consumption of 160 g or greater of pure alcohol on a typical occasion. Participants were followed-up for a median of 9.5 years (range 3.1-15.2). There were 836 deaths in the cohort, 395 of which resulted from cardiovascular diseases. Prevalence of binge drinking at baseline was 16% (n=1005). Adjusted relative risks for binge drinking at least once a month (compared with consumption of <80 g pure alcohol) were 1.05 (95% CI 0.80-1.36) for deaths from all causes, 0.99 (0.66-1.50) for deaths from cardiovascular disease, 1.27 (0.81-1.99) for deaths from coronary heart disease, and 2.08 (1.08-3.99) for death from external causes. Risk of total and cardiovascular mortality was raised in a small group of frequent heavy drinkers (5% [264] of all drinkers); for this group, adjusted relative risks were 1.61 (1.04-2.50) for total mortality and 2.05 (1.09-3.86) for deaths from cardiovascular disease. The risk of death from cardiovascular disease seems to be increased in frequent heavy drinkers, but is not necessarily associated with episodic binge drinking.

Alcohol consumption and binge drinking in Novosibirsk, Russia, 1985-95.

It has been suggested that the effects of alcohol, and binge drinking in particular, contributed to the dramatic fluctuations in Russian mortality rates: rapid decline in 1985-87, slow increase in 1988-91 and sharp increase in 1992-94. To date, there have been no data available to substantiate this claim. We examine for the first time the trends in alcohol intake and binge drinking in a Russian urban population. Independent random samples of men and women aged 25-64 in two districts of Novosibirsk city (Western Siberia) have been examined in 1985/86 (1535 men and 1296 women), 1988/89 (1700 men, no women), and 1994/95 (1539 men and 1511 women). Response rates ranged from 71% to 73%. The subjects reported frequency of drinking alcohol, average amount of alcohol consumed at a typical occasion, and their alcohol intake in the week preceding the interview. Two cut-off points to define binge drinking were adopted: > or = 80 g and > or = 120 g at a single occasion. The proportion of men who drank at least once a week increased from 27% in 1985/86 to 38% in 1994/95; corresponding figures among women were 0.6% and 6.5%, respectively. The mean consumption of pure alcohol at a single occasion in men was 90 g in 1985/86, 119 g in 1988/89 and 112 g in 1994/95; in women, it was 33 g in 1985/86 and 32 g in 1994/95. Between the first and the last survey, the mean weekly intake of pure alcohol increased from 120 g to 184 g in men and from 31 g to 41 g in women. Prevalence rates of binge drinking (> or = 80 g at least once a month) in the three surveys were 36%, 52% and 51%, respectively, in men, and 0.4% in the first and 5% in the last survey among women. Alcohol consumption and prevalence of binge drinking were high in men and low in women. The frequency of binge drinking among men increased between 1985/86 and 1988/89 and remained stable between 1988/89 and 1994/95. This is not consistent with trends in mortality. Shorter-term fluctuations between surveys, however, cannot be excluded.

Predicting Alcohol Consumption: The Influences of Perceived Opposite-Sex Peer Expectancies and Drinking Behavior

ABSTRACT This study describes the relationship between personal and perceived opposite-sex peer expectations and drinking behavior. As compared to themselves, participants believed that their opposite-sex best friend had greater expectations for the effects of alcohol. Females reported that their male friend drank more often (p < .01) and more per occasion (p < .01) than they did; there was no significant difference regarding the maximum quantity consumed. Males believed that their female friend drank less per typical (p < .01) and maximum (p < .01) occasion than they did; no differences were found for drinking frequency. Perceived peer drinking behavior added to the prediction of self-reported drinking beyond that which is predicted by personal alcohol expectancies. Perceived peer expectancies added to the prediction of personal drinking for females but not males. Gender differences and clinical implications are highlighted.

A cross-study contextual analysis of effects from individual-level drinking and group-level drinking factors: a meta-analysis of multiple longitudinal studies from the collaborative alcohol-related longitudinal project.

In contextual (cross-level) analysis within multiple longitudinal general population studies, individual-level drinking behaviors (quantity per typical occasion, frequency of drinking per month and total volume of drinks per month) at final measurement are assessed by three models that simultaneously enter individual- and group-level measures. Two age groups (15-20 and 21-30) are independently assessed. In each model, the Time 1 individual-level drinking behavior and one of three group-level factors are entered. The group-level factors are (1) the percentage of abstainers at Time 1 for each age/sex cohort, (2) the Time 1 group mean for the drinking measure for the age/sex cohort and (3) the mean difference of the age/sex cohort's change in the drinking measure over time. All variables in the model are controlled by variations to exposure in per capita consumption of alcohol during the age/sex cohort's formative years and at Time 2. Meta-analysis assesses the homogeneity of the findings across studies. Models were proposed with the rationale that (1) understanding of individual drinking behavior can be advanced if individual-level data and group-level data are considered in the same models, and (2) integration of these two levels of analyses are, to date, rare. The rationale for using meta-analysis is that findings from the models can be assessed across social contexts with respect to their generalizability. The mean difference model, controlling for individual drinking at Time 1, is the most influential of the group-level models for the younger age group: the degree to which the group changes its drinking pattern is positively related to individual-level drinking behavior at final measurement, over and above the individual's drinking behavior at Time 1, for individual-level frequency of drinking among males (homogeneous among drinkers only). Younger females show more significant relationships for the mean difference females show more significant relationships for the mean difference model. Findings are significant for all relationships examined for the mean difference of the drinking of the group and the individual drinking among the older males and females. Measures of individual-level drinking for all measures at Time 1, controlling for the group-level effects, are significantly related to individual-level drinking at final measurement. The results are homogeneous for quantity (drinkers only) and volume among the young. Findings indicate that characterizations of the drinking for both the individual and the group to which the individual belongs predict measures of drinking practices on the individual level over time.

A meta‐analysis of change in marital and employment status as predictors of alcohol consumption on a typical occasion*

Meta-analysis is used to combine results of primary data from 12 longitudinal studies to examine the consistency of results with respect to the role of changes on the individual level in marital status and employment status on changes in consumption of alcohol per typical occasion. The analyses control for the effects of Time 1 consumption per occasion and education. Not getting married and becoming unmarried are associated with increased consumption at follow-up and both variables are positively related to increased consumption among older men, but only becoming unmarried was related to increased consumption among older women. Becoming married is homogeneously and negatively associated with consumption at follow-up for younger and older persons of both sexes. Chronic unemployment is negatively related to consumption at follow-up among older males and younger females. Becoming unemployed between measurements is homogeneously and negatively related to consumption among older males and females, but positively related among younger males. Becoming employed is homogeneously and positively related to later consumption among all groups except young females.

A meta‐analysis of life course variation in drinking*

Meta-analysis combines results from multiple longitudinal studies to describe life course variation by age and sex for quantity of drinking per typical occasion (20 studies) and frequency of drinking during one month (27 studies). There is cross-study heterogeneity for the Time 1 means of the drinking variables blocking for age and sex. Age distributions for the Time 1 means are similar by gender within nations; in the aggregate, males exceed females in the magnitude of drinking. Dramatic shifts in the standardized mean difference (M2-M1) occur among the young; greater homogeneity and moderate change (declines) occur later in life. Implicated in improving cross-study homogeneity for M2-M1 among the young are interval between measurements, nation, Time 1 per capita consumption (PCC), difference in PCC and the Time 1 mean. Lower unstandardized regression coefficients are found for quantity among youth, but are not consistently homogeneous within nations; the association for frequency becomes increasingly stable with increasing age. Nation and interval are implicated in improving homogeneity. Decline in quantity occurs among the old. M2-M1 produces homogeneously higher regressions for groups of the young who increase quantity v. those who do not. Linkage of the group-level and individual-level findings is discussed.

Age, drinking habits and the effects of alcohol.

Some explanations for the common observation that older persons drink less alcohol than younger persons were tested in a sample of 41 men social drinkers aged 19-63. Subjects reported their drinking habits and performed balance beam and bead-stringing tasks under a moderate dose of alcohol (.72 ml absolute alcohol/kg). Self-reports of dose (ml absolute alcohol/kg) on a typical social occasion, and hourly dose (which controlled for individual differences in the duration of these occasions) were found to decline linearly with age. Alcohol absorption and elimination rates in the sample were not significantly related to age. The Ponderal Index (an estimate of percentage of body water in body weight) was negatively correlated with age and with peak blood alcohol levels (BALs). Older subjects had proportionately less body water (i.e., a smaller volume for distribution of alcohol) and obtained higher BALs. When individual differences in BAL were controlled for, the amount of alcohol-induced impairment in task performance was still found to increase significantly with age. This evidence was considered to suggest that a reduction in the volume of distribution for alcohol and an intensified behavioral effect of alcohol may operate jointly to cause older persons to reduce their dose of alcohol on social drinking occasions.

Sensory States and Sensory Objects

Philosophers of Mind often characterize experiences (or sensations) as functional states of an organism. Experiential states-whether somatic states, like having a toothache, or perceptual states, like hallucinating a dagger, are functionally defined in terms of their typical occasions and manifestations (see [4], [14], [16]). Having a toothache is that state which is customarily brought about by damaged or decaying teeth, and which typically results in howls, winces, pain reports, and the like. Being perceptually aware of a dagger is that state characteristically induced in normal observers by retinal irradiation caused by daggers under normal lighting conditions. And so on. That's one way to talk about experience. A well known alternative is the analysis, which embraces a distinction between the act or state of experiencing and the entity which is directly experienced; items such as pains, itches, visual sense-impressions and afterimages are the usual examples of objects with which organisms are, on this view, en rapport during the appropriate experiences. Act-object theories foster well known puzzles: What precisely is the ontological status of sensory objects (whether pains or sense-data)? Do such entities exist when unsensed, or do they just spring into existence concomitant with an appropriate act of experiencing? are they located? How does our knowledge of sensory objects relate to our knowledge of ordinary physical objects? Alternatives to act-object theories, such as the functionalist account, generate fewer metaphysical problems. When the dentist, probing around in my mouth, asks Where exactly is the pain?, we need not construe him as inquiring after the whereabouts of a certain entity, an ache or pain. To have a toothache is to be in a certain experiential state-a state characteristically brought about by damaged dental tissue. When the dentist finds the right tooth-thus sending me through the ceiling-he need not be thought of as having found the place wherein resides a pain; he has rather found the portion of my body causally responsible for my being in the state in question. On such an approach, the phenomenon of

Causes of Nighttime Thunderstorms over the Middle West

Nighttime thunderstorms frequently occur during the summer months over the Middle West. This paper describes this type of thunderstorm, which is initiated and maintained by instability producing conditions other than cold fronts, warm fronts, or thermal instability. Local superadiabatic instability initiates nighttime thunderstorms, and this instability is produced by any one of the following conditions: (1) advection of warm air at intermediate and h $ h levels; (2) advection of cooler air at intermediate and high levels; and (3) advection of warmer air at intermediate levels and cooler air at higher levels. Several typical occasions when these conditions prevailed and produced thunderstorms are described and analyzed.

ROENTGEN TREATMENT OF THE ADRENAL GLANDS IN ANGINA PECTORIS (ONE HUNDRED CASES)

Excerpt A NEW THEORY OF ANGINA PECTORIS The typical occasions on which angina pectoris complaints occur, namely physical exertion, cold temperature and psychic emotion are physiologically connected...