Temple Type Research Articles

Роль епископии в социокультурном развитии Смоленской земли в XII-XIV вв.: к постановке проблемы

The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the cultural monuments of the Smolensk land of the 12-14 centuries, which could have been created thanks to the Diocese. The idea of the exceptional richness and versatility of the Smolensk culture of this period, which had a direct or indirect influence on the course of development of Russian medieval culture as a whole, both before and after the Mongol conquest, is revealed. Smolensk land in the pre-Mongolian period was one of the key regions of Rus'. At the beginning of the 13 century it was one of the four strongest lands, and representatives of the local princely dynasty simultaneously owned all the free tables: Kiev, Novgorod and Galich. This makes us look differently at the role and significance of Smolensk, not only in the political, but also in the cultural life of Rus'. The article analyzes the influence of the Diocese of Smolensk on the development of sociocultural processes in the Smolensk land in the 12-14 centuries. So, in Smolensk, through the efforts of the prince and the bishop, presumably, their own architectural school was formed, a characteristic feature of which is a special stepped-tower-like type of temple, the aspiration of architectural forms upwards, and the expressive decorativeness of the facade. Taking into account various traditions and developing them, the Smolensk masters found their own way. Smolensk architecture largely anticipated the coming changes in the architecture of North-Eastern Rus'. It seems significant that two artels operated in the city at once: princely and bishops. We can judge about the scope of church construction by the archaeological data found on the territory of Smolensk. Three churches of the 12th century have survived to this day: those are the Archangel Michael, John the Theologian, and the Apostles Peter and Paul. In parallel, monumental painting also developed, where the Smolensk masters were innovators and ahead of their time. It also formed its own artel of painters. Smolensk literacy was also distinguished by exceptional originality. Today we can talk about nine monuments that have come down to us, which are works of different genres and themes.

In-between Institutional Religion and Folk Faith during the Transition into a Modern Political System – The Case of Giam Temples in Taiwan

“Giam” 巖 is a popular type of temple in Taiwan, also called “Giam-a”, referring to religious architecture related the concept of “mountains”. This type of temple was initially recorded as a geographical landscape or scenic attraction and was subsequently extended to indicate a specific form of worship space. This study explores the Giam architecture under the intervention of state power. The intervention process could be divided into two stages. The first stage involved the Investigation of Traditional Customs during the Japanese rule. The second stage involved interventions by the Buddhist Association of the Republic of China (BAROC) after World War II. This study depicts three significant Giam temple cases in Taiwan. From the perspective of spatial layout, architectural form, and ritual, discusses the development results of the Giam temple after the modern state system intervenes in religious affairs. Some Giam temples have made their choice between the folk beliefs and Buddhist beliefs as an adjustment, and others have still coexisted with both religious by separated them with spatial layout and different architectural style. The diverse sociocultural characteristic of the mountains makes the religious in it become the nexus of local power. So, as the state system and policy change, those religious spaces also need to change in some way, adjusting to balance the state and local power.

Храмовые здания из быстровозводимых блок-модулей в сейсмически активных районах Сибири и Дальнего Востока на примере Забайкальского региона

Purpose: To investigate the issues of the spread of Orthodox churches in remote areas of Siberia and the Far East. Questions of the use of block-modular structures in religious buildings in the conditions of seismic activity of the regions of Transbaikalia and the Far East, in particular, in the Trans-Baikal region. Methods: To analyze the canonical types of temples, their planning and volumetric-compositional solutions that have become widespread in the modern Orthodox architecture of the Russian Federation. To analyze the architectural features of modern Orthodox churches built at the beginning of the XXI century in different cities of the Russian Federation, which form the image of modern Orthodox domestic architecture by using non-traditional elements. To consider the influence of various factors on the formation of the image of modern Russian Orthodox churches. To analyze the role of traditions in the modern architecture of religious buildings. To determine the main directions of development of the construction of religious buildings. To conduct a study of the features of earthquakes in the designated region over the past 70 years. To analyze the current seismic conditions of the Trans-Baikal region. To conduct a study of the typology of temples that are possible for use in the Trans-Baikal region. To analyze the possibility of application and features of block-modular buildings made of various materials. To assess the degree of their possible modern implementation in the studied remote areas of Siberia and the Far East, especially in the territory of the Trans-Baikal region. Results: The main types of temples that are historically and climatically preferable for these areas are identified; various materials for the construction of temple buildings are presented, types of blocks made of logs are proposed, as well as types of blocks in frame design as the main standard block-modular structures for prefabricated religious buildings. Practical significance: It is shown that the use of block-modular structures as the main ones for the construction of buildings in areas remote from the centers allows solving the problem of the lack of Orthodox religious buildings in the region, significantly reducing the construction time of religious buildings and ensuring their seismic stability.

Modern trends in the architecture of mosques in Jordan

This study analyzes the features of historical and modern mosques in Jordan compared to that of Amman. The architecture of the Jordanian mosques reflects the images of great ancient empires and kingdoms of Europe and the Middle East. This has happened due to the geographical position of the country. From the studies of historians and archaeologists, comparative analysis of planning solutions, the use of plastics and decor of the facades of mosques, and the literature on the construction methods of the mosques allow us to conclude that age-old traditions have been preserved through the establishment of mosques in both the countries. Besides, the emergence of new features in constructing mosques has been observed. We find the influence of western architecture in the modern-day architectural designs of Jordanian religious establishments. Meanwhile, in the architecture of Amman mosques, a type of small temple is noticed, the volumetric-plastic composition of which is solved in an innovative way, not to resembling historical temples. In constructing mosques, Amman focuses on preserving the identity and spirituality of the mosques but adds new metaphors by ensuring multidimensionality of space and adopting the architectural designs of modern cities. Changes in the architecture of mosques happened due not only to new technologies and materials but, also to integrate with the processes of globalization and international cooperation of architects. We observe the construction of ancient mosques in both the countries combined both European and American architecture which reveals new images and possibilities of the architecture of the East.

Comparison of Soundscape Evaluation in Forest-Type and Urban-Type Han Chinese Buddhist Temples

Soundscapes are one of the main means of creating a religious atmosphere in Han Chinese Buddhist temples, which are the most important religious sites in China. This paper selected several representative forest-type and urban-type Han Chinese Buddhist temples and employed a questionnaire and sound level measurement methods to conduct a comparative analysis of four aspects of acoustic environment evaluation, i.e., quietness, comfort, harmony, and sound preference, to identify and compare the characteristics of respondents’ soundscape evaluation in these two types of temples. The results showed that compared with urban-type temples, respondents found the acoustic environment in forest-type temples to be quieter, more comfortable and more harmonious with the religious atmosphere. The sound level, measured with the questionnaire and respondents’ social characteristics, such as age, occupation, level of education, purpose and frequency of visiting the temples, and attitude towards Buddhist thought, influenced their soundscape evaluation of urban-type and forest-type temples to different degrees. Among the various kinds of sounds in the temple, natural sounds, such as the sounds of flowing water, birds and insects, and rustling leaves, were preferred in forest-type temples, while Buddhism-related human-made sounds, including chanting and background music, were preferred in urban-type temples.

Monuments of Ethiopian Church Architecture in the Geralta Region: Materials of Field Research in Autumn 2020 in the Tigray Region (Ethiopia)

The article, based on the results of field research in the fall of 2020, focuses on four churches in the mountainous Gärʽalta district in central Tǝgray. This strategically located most important role in the history of the Ethiopian state and region. There are many hard-to-reach rock-hewn churches that were centers of monastic activity. Gärʽalta’s many rock-hewn churches are well represented in the scientific literature. The focus of the work is three rock-hewn and one built churches, little studied in terms of analyzing their architectural plans and forms: Arbaʽǝtu Ǝnsǝsa (Mikaʼel) Gundo, Abunä Zärʼa Buruk, Kidanä Mǝḥrät Yaʽid, Maryam Pappasäyti. The article puts forward proposals on the typology of monuments, their dating; features characteristic of the architectural tradition of the historical period and, on the contrary, unique, inherent in the churches. Special attention is paid to the works of religious painting found in the interiors of these churches. Arbaʽǝtu Ǝnsǝsa (Mikaʼel) Gundo combines the features of two types of temples: traditional three-aisled basilicas and “open” plan basilicas. Abunä Zärʼa Buruk is an open plan temple. Kidanä Mǝḥrät Yaʽid characterizes the roughness of the forms, while retaining the common features of the three-nave plan. The temple at Pappasäyti continues to a certain extent the tradition of building church buildings in caves or in close association with rock formations. Additional relevance of the work is given by the fact that data collection in the course of field research immediately before the armed conflict in the northern Ethiopian region of Tǝgray started.

Giam Temples under the State Power in Taiwan During Japanese Rule and after World War II: Case Studies of Puanthinn-Giam in Chiayi, Tshuiping-Giam in Kaohsiung and Kang Suann-Giam in Kaohsiung

「巖」（或寫作「岩」），又稱為「巖仔」，是臺灣常見的寺廟類型，為與「山」的概念有關的宗教建築，最早是作為一種地理景觀或名勝被記錄，後來引申為某種祭祀空間的名稱。清領時期，隨著中國福建、廣東地區的移民來到臺灣，「巖」的寺廟名稱也被帶入，統合了「佛教信仰」與「民間信仰」兩種宗教屬性，並作為地方社會的連結點，成為地方民眾團結的「聯庄廟」與信仰中心。本文探討受到國家權力介入下的「巖」建築，其過程可分為兩個階段，第一階段為日治時期的舊慣調查，隨著西來庵事件的爆發，日本政府也開始進行全島性的慣習與宗教寺廟調查，部分「巖」為求自保，因而被歸入日本臨濟宗妙心寺派之下，和日本佛教產生連結，有些則登記為佛教，並產生管理人一職，戰時則成為皇道佛教的宣揚場所。第二階段為二次世界大戰後的中國佛教會，透過大仙巖戰後第一次的三壇大戒取得臺灣佛教界的主體地位，這些僧侶也被聘請至「巖」做住持，被劃入佛教的「巖」也因此和中國佛教會開始有直接或間接的接觸，並在戒嚴時期和政府維繫某種關係。本文挑選三個重要建築案例進行探討，分別是嘉義的半天巖、高雄的翠屏巖與高雄的崗山巖；這三間巖仔原先鈞為在地信仰中心，而後駐錫的住持僧侶，皆與日治時期大崗山法脈及戰後大仙巖傳戒脈絡有所關聯。本研究從空間配置、祀神安排、建築形式等三個面向切入探討，分析這三間巖仔與國家權力介入的關係。在國家權力介入下，這三間巖仔必須面臨「民間信仰」與「佛教信仰」之間的選擇，兩種選擇迫使巖進行妥協與調適，並充分體現在空間配置、祀神安排、建築形式等面向上。研究發現，選擇民間信仰取向的巖，較重視藉由香、煙與爐的靈力傳達；選擇佛教信仰取向的巖仔，則較重視宇宙觀與佛教經典之體現；更者，巖亦可能試圖讓兩種取向共存於空間與儀式中。Giam is a popular type of temple in Taiwan, also called ''Giam-a'', referring to religious architecture related the concept of ''mountains''. This type of temple was initially recorded as a geographical landscape or scenic attraction and was subsequently extended to indicate a specific form of worship space. As immigrants from the Fujian and Guangdong regions moved to Taiwan during the Qing dynasty, the names ''Giam'' was introduced to Taiwan. Giam temples integrated the attributes of two religions, namely, ''Buddhism'' and ''folk religion''. Moreover, Giam temples served as a connection point in the local society, thereby becoming a central temple of multi-village associations and religious hub unifying local villagers. This study explores the Giam architecture under the intervention of state power. The intervention process could be divided into two stages. The first stage involved the Investigation of Traditional Customs during the Japanese rule. With the eruption of the Selai Temple Incident, the Japanese government launched an island-wide investigation into traditional customs and religions. Some Giam temples fell under the Myoshin-ji branch of the Rinzai sect for self-protection, thereby establishing connections with Japanese Buddhism. Other Giam temples registered themselves as Buddhist and created the position of temple managers. The second stage involved interventions by the Buddhist Association of the Republic of China (BAROC) after World War II, intervened in the precept transmission assembly held in Taisian-Giam, and thus obtained the dominant status in Taiwan’s Buddhist community. The monks were recruited as the abbots or administrators of Giam temples. Therefore, the Giam temples classified as Buddhist began to have direct or indirect contact with the BAROC. This study uses three significant Giam temples cases: Puanthinn-Giam in Chiayi, Tshuiping-Giam in Kaohsiung, and Kangsuann-Giam in Kaohsiung. The abbots and monks of these three Giam temples were associated with the lineage of Tu-kang-suann during the Japanese rule and the thread of precept transmission at Taisian Giam after World War II. This study analyzes the relationship between these three Giam temples and the intervention of state power from three dimensions: spatial lay out, deity worship, and architectural form. Under the intervention of state power, these three Giam temples were faced with the choices of ''folk religion'' or ''Buddhism''. The two options compelled them to make compromises and adjustments that were fully reflected in the aforementioned dimensions. This study arrives at the following findings: folk religion-oriented Giam temples placed greater emphasis on the transmission of spiritual power through incense, smoke, and censers, whereas Buddhism-oriented Giam temples focused more on the embodiment of cosmology and Buddhist sutras. Furthermore, some Giam temples might even attempt to enable the coexistence of the two religious orientations in the spaces and rituals.

Religiusitas Magis Pura Taman Sari Desa Adat Sandakan Kecamatan Petang Kabupaten Badung

Religion is a concept of religious order between human and God. A religious attitude, of course, based on the scriptures, which always obeys what He commands and stays away from all the prohibitions. One form of religious attitude is seen in the worship of God Almighty. Hinduism as one of the religions in Indonesia, of course, has its own way of worshiping Ida Sang Hyang Widhi / God with what is contained in the teachings of the Hindu holy book, the Vedas. One of the holy places in Hinduism is the Pura. Based on the type of temple, there is what is called the Dang Khayangan Temple, which is a temple made to worship the greatness of God and to commemorate the services of holy people who have spread the teachings of Hinduism. Taman Sari Temple is one of the Dang Khayangan Temples located in Sandakan Traditional Village, Sulangai Village, Petang District, Badung Regency which is a temple that is trusted by the surrounding community as a holy place to worship God and a place to ask for success in studying. The purpose of this research in general is to provide information to the public in order to know about the magical religiosity of Taman Sari Temple in the Sandakan Traditional Village. In addition, this research also aims to contribute knowledge and insight, especially in science related to the magical religiosity of temples. The method used in this research is qualitative research. Sources of data used are primary data, namely conducting direct interviews with informants who know and secondary data, namely related library sources, techniques for determining informants using snowball sampling, and data collection techniques using observation, interviews and documentation. The result of this research is that the magical religiosity of Taman Sari Temple is used as a place to ask for fluency in studying and helping find a mate and is used as a series of pawiwahan ceremonies for the local community. Taman Sari Temple also has functions, namely 1) social function, Taman Sari Temple is used as a place for social interaction such as during piodalan ceremonies, meetings and other dialogues. 2) aesthetic function, Taman Sari Temple is a manifestation of the creativity of the local community such as the architecture of the temple building, reringgitan on banten, sacred chanting, to dance and percussion. In addition to its function, Taman Sari Temple also has a theological meaning, namely worship of God Almighty who manifests as Lord Shiva with the identity of Ida Nak Lingsir at Taman Sari Temple. So knowing and understanding magical religiosity can increase the attitude of trust and belief in God.

Sistem Informasi Pura Kahyangan Jagat Berbasis Ontology

Bali is one of the tourist attractions that are in great demand by tourists both from foreign tourists and from within the country because it has a diversity of arts and culture. However, many people do not know the meaning of the temple itself and the types of temples. Therefore, in this study, the development of the Kahyangan Jagat Temple information system was carried out using the Prototyping method and using the ontology as the backbone of the system. The development of the ontology model is built using the Methodology method. The system has features of browsing and searching. In evaluating the system's functionality, a Black-Box Testing test of the browsing and search features was carried out. The results obtained in the system provide good functionality testing results.

The Religious Complexes of Megiddo and Khirbet ez-Zeraqon and the Early Bronze Age Interregional Connectivity

The southern Levantine tradition of cult buildings from Early Bronze I to Early Bronze III is represented mainly by simple broad-room temples with a central row of pillar bases, a layout derived directly from the local Chalcolithic traditions. However, at Tell el-Mutesellim/Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley, and Khirbet ez-Zeraqon in the northern Transjordanian plateau, two different types of temples were discovered, which are often conflated in the category of broad-room temples in antis. In contrast, we argue that they belong to two distinct types of Early Bronze Age temples, whose ancestry can be traced in different areas and periods during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. We re-analyse differences and similarities of the religious complexes at the two sites in terms of intra- and inter-regional connections, re-discuss the duration of their use during the Early Bronze Age, and propose an explanation for the blending of local and non-local features in the two sacred areas framed within inter-regional connectivity already during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC.

Saint Nicholas Church in the pomor settlement of Maloshuyka — the oldest tent roof temple of the octagon-on-quadrangle type. History and architecture

Introduction. The Saint Nicholas Church in Maloshuyka, dated 1638, is notable for being one of the earliest known examples of a widely spread type of wooden temple. Despite its historical and cultural significance, this object remains largely unstudied. To better understand the development of Russian wooden church construction and set up a typology, it is necessary to consider the Saint Nicholas Church in the context of all-Russian church building traditions of the 17th century. A monument of such significance needs to have its own place in the history of Russian wooden architecture.
 
 Materials and methods. The study was based on historical archival documents and on-site survey results. We considered the monument together with the history of the settlement and the entire region. A joint historical and architectural approach was used to study the object. The object was compared with its equivalents via comparative typological analysis. In order to identify individual and typical features in the Saint Nicholas Church architecture, typologically similar objects were reviewed chronologically and geographically.
 
 Results. New historical sources were introduced into the scientific discourse. Construction history and periodization of the Saint Nicholas Church were identified. We determined changes in appearance at each construction stages, and described architectural, artistic and stylistic descriptions of the object at each construction stage. The object was compared with similar objects, and characteristic features of this type of church at the early stages of its evolution were identified. They were expressed in general dimensions, proportions, and decorative finish. Regional typical features and all-Russian features were singled out. The place of the object in the Russian history of wooden architecture was defined.
 
 Conclusions. The Saint Nicholas Church is a unique monument of Russian wooden architecture. Being the oldest tent roof wooden temple of octagon-on-quadrangle type, this object reflects the earliest development stages of this architectural type. The Saint Nicholas Church has certain local architectural features, but it generally conforms to the all-Russian architectural traditions of the 17h century.

The Long Road Out of Eden: Early Dynastic Temples, a Quantitative Approach to the Bent-Axis Shrines

This study was conducted to quantitatively assess the architectural data stemming from 70 buildings usually considered as bent-axis temples, a type of Mesopotamian temple mainly constructed from 2900 to 2300–2200 BC. The study reviews, region-by-region and site-by-site, the dimensions of the rooms considered the “holy of holies”, registering width, length, and surface area. The results are discussed in comparison to the previous reception rooms of the tripartite buildings, considered the original matrix from which these shrines developed. The chronological and regional differences that are outlined provide some insights about the kind of social units that were involved in the use of those buildings, which were key structures in the urban fabric of Early City states.

Construction of a Temple with Regard to the Rising Sun Ray

Using the example of a number of cultural traditions, the author considers a construction of the temple structure along a rising sun ray. There are two main types of temples built according to the rising sun ray: the temples oriented towards the sunrise by their sanctuaries, and the temples oriented towards the sunrise by the entrance portal. Examples of such a construction are given for the temples of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Orthodox and Catholic Christianity, Hinduism and Shintoism. The first type of temple in Ancient Egypt is shown to represent the birth of the sun in its sanctuary. In Christianity, this type of temple represents a ray of the sun entering the temple from an apse window – from the God depicted there. The second type of temples in Ancient Egypt represents the revival of image of the pharaoh-god located in his sanctuary, with the rising sun ray. In the ancient tradition, this type of temple represents the meeting of the rising sun over the large pre-temple altar, along with a statue of a deity in the depths of the sanctuary. It is shown that the main cathedral of Catholic Christianity, St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome, is oriented towards sunrise not according to Christian, but according to ancient tradition. In the Hindu Shaiva tradition, the meeting of the rising sun in front of the temple portal is associated with penetration of its ray into the sanctuary and the highlighting of the statue or the main attribute of the god. In the Shinto tradition, the ascendant is presented in a special portal. The welcoming sacrifice takes place on the pre-temple altar. In general, the paper deals with the semantic, spatial, decorative, and ritual aspects of the construction performed of both types of temples.

Associations between Incense-Burning Temples and Respiratory Mortality in Hong Kong

Incense burning is an important topic facing many countries in Asia. As a highly urbanized area, the overlapping of urban functional blocks in Hong Kong has resulted in many temples being located near residential and commercial areas. Therefore, the pollutants emitted by temples’ incense burning could cause severe health problems to the population. This study identified 366 Hong Kong temples and classified them into four categories: open, semi-closed, closed, and non-active, according to their incense burning characteristics. Among them, open temples have the largest average area and least quantity. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that building density, greenery density, water density, and temple weight are the most highly influencing factors. The temple weight is the only loading factor with a contributing factor from PC2, especially in 2006 and 2011. Furthermore, the linear regression model has been applied to analyze the correlation between variables. Although this study did not reach conclusive results about the actual impact of each temple type, the model results confirm that the temple is a sub-factor to respiratory mortality. This provides the theoretical foundation for government policy establishment of temple construction planning and community optimization in Asian cities.

To the question about age determination of the “Cross-in-square” type temples in the North Caucasus and in the Northern Black Sea Region

Based on the historical events’ analysis in the region and documentary evidence, in accordance with the “Cross-in-square” type temples’ three-dimensional compositions peculiarities, it is suggested that this type of temple was brought to Alanya from Abkhazia, and to Abkhazia - from Chersonesos and Trebizond. At the same time, the direct Constantinople influence, which could be due to the direct subordination of the Alan metropolis to Constantinople and the desire to repeat the features of metropolitan architecture and a number of compositional features in the Alanya temples, has not been excluded.

A Feminist Approach to the Marian Temple Type

AbstractThe opening chapter of the Gospel of Luke establishes a connection between the Temple and Mary, the mother of Jesus. This connection is developed over the centuries by theologians, often in connection to Marian doctrines, but also in service of Christology. This research considers what the theological implications of such a typology might be—what are theologians saying about Mary, and often Jesus, when they draw a typological connection between the Temple and Mary? Furthermore, what is a feminist theologian to make of such a theological statement? Is Mary a monolithic, bland symbol or does a typological connection between the Temple and Mary make for a powerfully feminist Marian theology?

On the medieval architecture chronology of the Black sea Coastal area north in the North Caucasus and the Crimea

During the research we revealed three periods of architectural and building activity activation in the Black Sea coastal area north territory of the North Caucasus and the Crimea. All these periods were connected with the Christianization waves. The first period, the Christian expansion beginning (the VI-IX cc.) is characterized by the Christian objecting role conceptualization development the landscape territorial organization, the mono-apsidal churches and certain types of temples building, mainly within fortresses built according to the classical rules of Vitruvius. In the second period (X-XII cc.) when the existing denominational centers influence was at its peak, the main principle was to follow the temple architecture tendencies of the Byzantine Empire, Armenia, Georgia, for the North Caucasus – Abkhazia. In this period depending from the influence area the basilicas, cross-domed churches, hall churches with pasto-phoria and an inscribed apsis, mono-apsidal churches of different types were built. In fortification architecture, on the contrary, there was a tendency towards regionalization. The feature of the third period (XIII-XV cc.) is the regional development and the Christian architecture ethnic variants on the population world views religious blending, the fortified settlements creation basis.

Aproximación al programa iconográfico y la función de los Templos de Millones de Años: el caso de estudio delHeneket-Ankh de Tutmosis III (Luxor, Egipto)

Los Templos de Millones de Años, un tipo de edificio de culto que tuvo su apogeo durante el Reino Nuevo Egipcio, estaban destinados al culto del rey soberano y del Dios que acogía, esencialmente Amón-Ra. Encarnaban la simbiosis del rey y la divinidad y la eterna regeneración del poder real. En este sentido, si bien su arquitectura y programa decorativo podían ser parecidos al de otros templos propiamente “divinos”, estos debían manifestar una serie de patrones que marcaban las funciones que los hacía únicos. El Heneket-Ankh de Tutmosis III, situado en la orilla oeste de Tebas, es uno de aquellos Templos de Millones de Años. Su decoración ha sido objeto reciente de estudio y permite contribuir al conocimiento que tenemos de este tipo de templos, así como de su programa decorativo y simbólico.

Arched gables (zakomara) temple of the ХІІ century. Regional traditions

Speaking about an originality of the early stages of development of Ancient Rus architecture in comparison with Byzantine architecture, the first thing mentioned is the usage of several domes. However, the decorative arched gables (zakomara), that became attribute of Ancient Rus arched gables temple, yet unknown in Byzantium, are almost not being mentioned. St. Sofia Cathedral in Novgorod represents the initial formation stage of such type of temple (A. Komech). The earliest decorative arched gable (zakomara) found has been preserved in this Novgorod cathedral. The process of formation of the arched gables temple happened in Kyiv in the second half of the ХІ century. St. Michael's Golden-Domed cathedral and Trinity gateway church of the Pechersk monastery in Kyiv are indicative of complete forms of arched gables temple. These two temples were constructed almost at the same time at the beginning of the ХІI century, but they represent the initial stages of different directions of the arched gables temple development. Both temples have one dome. But St. Michael's Cathedral has the form of a parallelepiped, statics of which is emphasized on the meander located at the level chorus (but for the east apses) and also horizontal ranks of windows and niches on all its facades. Trinity church has a vertical volume without any horizontal partitioning. Temples, similar in composition to Dormition cathedral of the Pechersk monastery and St. Michael's Golden-Domed cathedral in Kyiv, were built in Chernihiv at the first quarter of the ХІІ century. Chernihiv temples, unlike Kyiv temples, were built only from brick in the «оpus isodos» building technique, using Romanesque structural components and decorative elements (cross vaults, semi-columns on lesenes, lombard band, perspective portals). In Novgorod after completion of the St. Sophia cathedral the tradition of stone construction was renewed at the beginning of the ХІІ century. The remained Novgorod temples of this period have complete arched gables forms with vertical layout of the volumes and several domes. During the XІІ century, there are two kinds of the Novgorod variant of the zakomara temple in Pskov and Staraya Ladoga. Walls of the Novgorod, Pskov, and Staraya Ladoga temples were built in mixed building technique from brick and stone. In the Vladimiro-Suzdalsky principality from the middle of the XІІ century, the temples presented a connection of several composite variants of the arched gables type and other options of the Romanesque building technique (hewn quadrants of limestone) and the Romanesque decorative elements. The Chernihiv variant of arched gables temple became interregional, but kinds of Novgorod variant and Vladimiro-Suzdal variant were local. Temples, similar to the Chernihiv temples, were built in Kyiv, Kanev, Vladimir-Volynsk, Smolensk, Pereiaslav from the second quarter of the ХІІ century. This variant of arched gables temple prevailed until the end of the XІІ century when it was displaced by a new interregional tower-shaped temple type with the step raised arches. Arched gables temple represented the main way of development of Ancient Rus architecture of the XІІ century, but there were other traditions which are presented by single remained or partially remained monuments.

On the origin and formation of the early Qin Culture

Abstract The early Qin Culture refers to the Qin Culture from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the early Spring-and-Autumn Period. Considering its cultural composition, we will realize that it has three main sources, namely the Shang, Zhou, and Western Rong (Western Barbarian) Cultures. The elements derived from the Shang Culture comprised the furniture of waist pits and the custom of dog burial in graves, the use of human sacrifice, the interment of chariots and horses, the Shang-style pottery wares and the tradition of constructing huge-scale mausoleums. These elements reflect that the Qin people initially came from the east and had strong ties with the Shang Dynasty and were deeply influenced by the Shang Culture, and belonged to the Yin people (after the fall of the Shang Dynasty) in the broader sense. The elements absorbed from the Zhou Culture comprised the architectural types of ancestral temples and palaces, the adoption of the ritual vessels, the suspended musical instruments, the Zhou style pottery wares and the writing system. These elements indicate that the Qin people adopted the ritual and musical culture of the Western Zhou Dynasty, which had a great political significance at the early stage of Qin’s history. The factors derived from the cultures of the Western Rong ethnic group or the northern steppes included the flexed burial position, the golden body ornaments and chariots and horses, iron wares, animal motifs on utensils, recesses on the walls of the burial pits and the ditches around the graves, the use of bronze cauldrons and swords (daggers). Such elements reflect that during the development process in the Longyou region, the Qin people absorbed the cultures of the adjacent Western Rong ethnic group, the Eurasian steppes and farther beyond. The first kind of elements continued to predominate the Qin Culture down to the middle Western Zhou, then the second and the third ones arose from the late Western Zhou to the early Spring-and-Autumn Period, and simultaneously, the first were only present in the aristocratic burial activities. Based on the remnants of the Shang Culture, the early Qin Culture came into being by widely absorbing elements of the Zhou and Western Rong Cultures.