Spore Types Research Articles

EKSPLORASI MIKORIZA ARBUSKULAR PADA BEBERAPA SISTEM PENGGUNAAN LAHAN PERTANIAN DI DESA NGAWONGGO, KECAMATAN TAJINAN, KABUPATEN MALANG

Various crop commodities are grown in Ngawonggo Village with various land uses, including rice fields, dry fields and agroforestry which are dominated by intensive agriculture. As a result, this agricultural pattern can potentially cause land degradation. One of the technological inputs in improving sustainable crop production systems is the application of mycorrhizal biofertilizers. This study aims to determine the level of population, mycorrhizal colonies and types of spores and the factors that influence them in rice fields with rice (Oryza sativa), dry fields with sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria), and agroforestry with coffee (Coffea sp.) and Durian ( Durio zibethinus). The study used a randomized block design with sampling on three land uses, with 5. The results obtained only one type of mycorrhizal spore of Glomus sp. on all land uses. The highest number of spores was in agroforestry land use, as much as 102 g-1 soil, and the lowest was in rice fields, as much as 10 g-1 soil. Mycorrhizal colonies on plant roots were the highest in agroforestry land use, it was found that 42.77% of coffee roots were colonized by mycorrhizae, followed by durian with a colonization proportion of 42.29%, rice fields with commodities had the lowest colonization proportion of 16.21%.

Non-chlorophyllous and crypto-chlorophyllous fern spores differ in their mobilisation of fatty acids during priming.

During fern spore germination, lipid hydrolysis primarily provides the energy to activate their metabolism. In this research, fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic) were quantified in the spores exposed or not to priming (hydration-dehydration treatments). Five fern species were investigated, two from xerophilous shrubland and three from a cloud forest. We hypothesised that during the priming hydration phase, the fatty acids profile would change in concentration, depending on the spore type (non-chlorophyllous and crypto-chlorophyllous). The fatty acid concentration was determined by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Chlorophyll in spores was vizualised by epifluorescence microscopy and quantified by high-resolution liquid chromatography with a DAD-UV/Vis detector. Considering all five species and all the treatments, the oleic acid was the most catabolised. After priming, we identified two patterns in the fatty acid metabolism: (1) in non-chlorophyllous species, oleic, palmitic, and linoleic acids were catabolised during imbibition and (2) in crypto-chlorophyllous species, these fatty acids increased in concentration. These patterns suggest that crypto-chlorophyllous spores with homoiochlorophylly (chlorophyll retained after drying) might not require the assembly of new photosynthetic apparatus during dark imbibition. Thus, these spores might require less energy from pre-existing lipids and less fatty acids as 'building blocks' for cell membranes than non-chlorophyllous spores, which require de novo synthesis and structuring of the photosynthetic apparatus.

Environmental fungal spore aerosolization: a review

Bioaerosol containing fungal spores became public health hazards. The aerosols contain the fungal spores of different species of Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Chaetomium, Penicillium, Wallemia, Stachybotrys etc. and caused various life-threatening respiratory diseases such as hypersensitivity, pneumonia, Aspergillosis, Candidiasis, Mucormycosis, Cancer, etc. They are easily transmitted from one individual to another. They also cause extreme damage to crops and create problems in food security by producing mycotoxins. The transmissions of fungal spores depend upon the environmental factor, seasonal variation, growth surface, type of fungal spore, etc. There are various biophysical, biochemical and molecular techniques that are present to detect fungal spores in aerosol. There are numerous physical and chemical agents that can kill fungi. Good public health and food security can be achieved through the detection and management of fungal spores in aerosols.

Viable Clostridium botulinum spores not detected in the household dust of major Canadian cities.

Clostridium botulinum causes infant botulism by colonising the intestines and producing botulinum neurotoxin in situ. Previous reports have linked infant botulism cases to C. botulinum spores in household dust, yet the baseline incidence of C. botulinum spores in residential households is currently unknown. Vacuum cleaner dust from 963 households in 13 major Canadian cities was tested for C. botulinum using a novel real-time PCR assay directed against all known subtypes of the botulinum neurotoxin gene. None of the samples tested positive for C. botulinum. Analysis of a random subset of samples by MALDI Biotyper revealed that the most common anaerobic bacterial isolates were of the genus Clostridium and the most common species recovered overall was Clostridium perfringens. Dust that was spiked with C. botulinum spores of each toxin type successfully produced positive real-time PCR reactions. These control experiments indicate that this is a viable method for the detection of C. botulinum spores in household dust. We make several recommendations for future work that may help discover a common environmental source of C. botulinum spores that could lead to effective preventative measures for this rare but deadly childhood disease.

Spore Abundance and Morphology of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal under Conservation Agriculture

Soil is full of microbial diversity and microbes present in soil interact diversely with other living form present in soil e.g., soil microbes and plants. These interactions range from symbiosis to parasitic. Among these, the most predominating mutualistic symbiotic relation is mycorrhiza (associated with ∼80% of terrestrial plant species), formed between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and vascular plants. An experiment was conducted under three cropping system rice-maize-cowpea (RMCp), rice-wheat-green gram (RWGg) and rice-cauliflower-bororice cropping (RCfBr) to study influence of three different tillage intensities i.e., CT (conventional tillage), RT (reduced tillage), and ZT (zero tillage) with five different levels of fertilizer and residue application, R1 (0%Residue & 100%RDF), R2(100%Residue & 50%RDF), R3 (100%Residue & 75%RDF), R4 (50%Residue & 100%RDF), R5 (50%Residue & 75%RDF), on AMF spore load and diversity.The experimental design followed was split plot with tillage was main plot treatment and residue as sub plot treatment. Result showed that AMF spores and diversity are significantly influenced of degree of soil disturbance under different tillage practices and cropping system in practice, however residue application imparted non-significant influence on AMF spore load and diversity. A significant lower spore count was observed under CT as degree of soil disturbance is excessive high under CT compared to RT and ZT. With respect to spore diversity, round (shape), brown (color) and free spores were predominating spore type. In reference to spore shape abundance sequence was round>spherical> oval while for spore color it was brown>yellow>hyaline and >90 % spore was free while attached spores were <5%. In case of AMF spore count influence of cropping system was more prominent compared to other factors (i.e., tillage and residue). In RMCp and RWGg, significant increase inspore count was observed compared to RCfBr cropping system. On second year of experimentation, in RCfBr cropping system a significant decline in spore number was detected due to inclusion of cauliflower which act as non-host of AMF. Hence to attain benefits associated with AMF to arable crop we must reduce level of soil disturbance and avoid crucifer crops in cropping system.

Uncertainty in coprophilous fungal spore concentration estimates

The abundance of coprophilous (dung-inhabiting) fungal spores (CFS) in sedimentary records is an increasingly popular proxy for past megaherbivore abundance that is used to study megaherbivore-vegetation interactions, timing of megaherbivore population declines and extinctions, and the introduction of domesticated herbivores. This method often relies on counting CFS alongside pollen and tracers of known concentration such as exotic pollen or synthetic microspherules. Prior work has encouraged reporting CFS abundances as accumulation rates (spores/unit2/year) or concentration (spores/unit3) instead of percentages relative to the total pollen abundance, because CFS percentages can be sensitive to fluctuations in pollen influx. In this work, we quantify the uncertainty associated with estimating concentration values at different total counts and find that high uncertainty is associated with concentration estimates using low to moderate total counts (n = 20 to 200) of individual fungal spore types and tracers. We also demonstrate the effect of varying tracer proportions, and find that larger tracer proportions result in narrower confidence intervals. Finally, the probability of encountering a CFS spore from a specific taxon occurring in moderate concentrations (1,000 spores/unit2) dramatically decreases after a low tracer count (∼50). The uncertainties in concentration estimates caused by calculating tracer proportion are a likely cause of the high observed variance in many CFS time series, especially when CFS or tracer concentrations are low. Thus, we recommend future CFS studies increase counts and report the uncertainty surrounding concentration values. For some records, reporting spore data as presence/absence rather than concentrations or counts is preferable, such as when performing high counts is not feasible.

Strategies for Controlling the Sporulation in Fusarium spp.

Fusarium species are the most destructive phytopathogenic and toxin-producing fungi, causing serious diseases in almost all economically important plants. Sporulation is an essential part of the life cycle of Fusarium. Fusarium most frequently produces three different types of asexual spores, i.e., macroconidia, chlamydospores, and microconidia. It also produces meiotic spores, but fewer than 20% of Fusaria have a known sexual cycle. Therefore, the asexual spores of the Fusarium species play an important role in their propagation and infection. This review places special emphasis on current developments in artificial anti-sporulation techniques as well as features of Fusarium's asexual sporulation regulation, such as temperature, light, pH, host tissue, and nutrients. This description of sporulation regulation aspects and artificial anti-sporulation strategies will help to shed light on the ways to effectively control Fusarium diseases by inhibiting the production of spores, which eventually improves the production of food plants.

The relationship between chlorophyllous spores and mycorrhizal associations in ferns: evidence from an evolutionary approach.

Approximately 14% of all fern species have physiologically active chlorophyllous spores that are much more short-lived than the more common and dormant achlorophyllous spores. Most chlorophyllous-spored species (70%) are epiphytes and account for almost 37% of all epiphytic ferns. Chlorophyllous-spored ferns are also overrepresented among fern species in habitats with waterlogged soils, of which nearly 60% have chlorophyllous spores. Ferns in these disparate habitat types also have a low incidence of mycorrhizal associations. We therefore hypothesized that autotrophic chlorophyllous spores represent an adaptation of ferns to habitats with scarce mycorrhizal associations. We evaluated the coevolution of chlorophyllous spores and mycorrhizal associations in ferns and their relation to habitat type using phylogenetic comparative methods. Although we did not find support for the coevolution of spore type and mycorrhizal associations, we did find that chlorophyllous spores and the absence of mycorrhizal associations have coevolved with epiphytic and waterlogged habitats. Transition rates to epiphytic and waterlogged habitats were significantly higher in species with chlorophyllous spores compared to achlorophyllous lineages. Spore type and mycorrhizal associations appear to play important roles in the radiation of ferns into different habitat types. Future work should focus on clarifying the functional significance of these associations.

Decolorization of Textile Dye by Spore Surface Displayed Small Laccase for the Enhanced Thermal Stability and Robust Repeated Reaction.

In this study, we tried to decolorize synthetic dyes using small laccase (SLAC) from Streptomyces coelicolor, which is resistant to pH, temperature change, and traditional inhibitors for the actual industrial applications using spore surface display system. We inserted SLAC-His6 tag at the C-terminal of CotE anchoring motif. The proper surface expression of CotE-SLAC fusion protein on the surface of Bacillus subtilis spore was verified with flow cytometry using FITC labeled anti-His6 tag antibody. After 6 h of reaction, more than 90% of Indigo carmine was decomposed using recombinant SLAC displaying Bacillus spore, whereas less than 10% of Indigo carmine was decomposed with wild type spore. Over 70% of laccase activity was retained with recombinant SLAC displaying spore, which was heat-treated for 3 h at 90°C. For eight rounds of repeated decomposition of Indigo carmine, no significant decrease of enzymatic activity was observed. This showed the robust characteristics of spore display format for repeated and harsh condition reactions.

A Modified Spectroscopic Approach for the Real-Time Detection of Pollen and Fungal Spores at a Semi-Urban Site Using the WIBS-4+, Part I.

The real-time monitoring of primary biological aerosol particles (PBAP) such as pollen and fungal spores has received much attention in recent years as a result of their health and climatic effects. In this study, the Wideband Integrated Bioaerosol Sensor (WIBS) 4+ model was evaluated for its ability to sample and detect ambient fungal spore and pollen concentrations, compared to the traditional Hirst volumetric method. Although the determination of total pollen and fungal spore ambient concentrations are of interest, the selective detection of individual pollen/fungal spore types are often of greater allergenic/agricultural concern. To aid in this endeavour, modifications were made to the WIBS-4 instrument to target chlorophyll fluorescence. Two additional fluorescence channels (FL4 and FL5 channels) were combined with the standard WIBS channels (FL1, FL2, FL3). The purpose of this modification is to help discriminate between grass and herb pollen from other pollen. The WIBS-4+ was able to successfully detect and differentiate between different bioaerosol classes. The addition of the FL4 and FL5 channels also allowed for the improved differentiation between tree (R2 = 0.8), herbaceous (R2 = 0.6) and grass (R2 = 0.4) pollen and fungal spores (R2 = 0.8). Both grass and herbaceous pollen types showed a high correlation with D type particles, showing strong fluorescence in the FL4 channel. The additional fluorescent data that were introduced also improved clustering attempts, making k-means clustering a comparable solution for this high-resolution data.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in cocoa plantation affected by different elevations and soil physical-chemical properties

Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) play an essential role in various agroecosystems since they build symbiosis mutualism with plants. Understanding the differences in the distribution and diversity of AMF in cocoa plants with different elevations is important to explore the bio-ecological aspects of AMF. This study examined the differences in the number and types of AMF spores in cocoa plantations at three different elevations: <500, >500-1000, and >1000 masl. Environmental factors such as the physical and chemical properties of the soil were also investigated. This study found that the number of AMF spores was higher in the lowlands (<500 masl) than in the highlands. Rarefaction curves show that all soil samples taken are adequate for diversity analysis. Multivariate analysis with NMDS followed by the goodness of fit statistical test using the Bray Curtis method showed that a clear distribution pattern in the AMF community structure was significantly influenced by chemical and physical factors of the soil in the form of phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, total nitrogen, clay, and soil texture.

Molecular and morphological description of a novel microsporidian Inodosporus fujiokai n. sp. infecting both salmonid fish and freshwater prawns.

A new microsporidian disease of cultured rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss has recently been confirmed in Japan, and the causative species was tentatively designated as Microsporidium sp. RBT-2021. Involvement of common prawn Palaemon paucidens in its transmission was suggested based on the previous feeding trials, although the microsporidian infection in P. paucidens was not confirmed. In this study, P. paucidens in Lake Biwa, Japan was investigated for microsporidian infection and 4 types of spores (types 1-4) were newly found. The nucleotide sequence of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene was identical between type 1 and Microsporidium sp. RBT-2021, indicating they are conspecific. However, intriguingly, the spore morphology and the mode of development in fish and prawn were strikingly different. Morphological observations revealed type 1 in the prawn possesses characteristics of the genus Inodosporus Overstreet and Weidner, 1974, while Microsporidium sp. RBT-2021 in the trout exhibited the characteristics of the genus Kabatana Lom, Dyková and Tonguthai, 2000. In the phylogeny, type 1 was placed within a clade comprising Kabatana spp. and Inodosporus octosporus. Based on the morphological and molecular analyses, we describe Microsporidium sp. RBT-2021 as Inodosporus fujiokai n. sp. Together with the success of the previous prawn-feeding trials, this study strongly suggests I. fujiokai n. sp. has a multi-host life cycle utilizing fish and crustacean hosts and different modes of development in each host. Such polymorphic life cycle has barely been known among fish microsporidians. This study also suggests that the genus Kabatana is a junior synonym of the genus Inodosporus.

The diversity of flora at the Late Pliocene era in the Cisubuh Formation based on palynological data

Palynological evidence on past time gives features on plant diversity. The objective of this research was to determine the flora diversity in the past based on the palynological evidence in the form of pollen and spores (palynomorphs) that stored in sediments in the Cisubuh Formation. This research consisted of two stages, field sampling, and laboratory observation. A total of 16 samples on Cisubuh Formation on Rengasdengklok area, West Java Indonesia have been identified for their fossil content. Sixty-seven palynomorphs have been identified, comprised of 53 pollen taxa and 14 type of spores. Of the 67 palynomorph taxa, 40 were arboreal pollen, 12 were non-arboreal pollen, and 15 were Pteridophytes. The geological age of Cisubuh Formation was Late Pliocene, as indicated by Dacrycarpidites australiensis and without the presence of Stenochlaenidites papuanus. Based on the palynological evidence, the flora diversity in each layer sediment of the Cisubuh Formation showed high similarity (87%).

PREVALENCE OF AIRBORNE POLLEN GRAINS AND FUNGAL SPORES IN A CITY OF THAR DESERT, INDIA

Monitoring of bioaerosols i.e., pollen grains and fungal spores, was undertaken for two consecutive years in a city of Thar Desert- Bikaner, using Gravity Slide Method. A total of 32 different pollen taxa were identified with Annual Pollen Integral (API) of 890 pollen grains per sq. cm in the first year and 906 pollen grains per sq. cm in the second year. The pollen count of non-arboreal plants was much more than that of the arboreal plants. The most prominent annual average pollen percentage was credited to Poaceae (25.91%), followed by Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae (17.57%), Papilionaceae (7.86%) and Cyperaceae (5.95%) among non-arboreal plants: and to Prosopis juliflora (14.84%) amongst arboreal taxa. Two peak seasons were observed in both the years i.e., February to April and August to October for both pollen grains as well as fungal spores. 32 types of airborne fungal spores were reported from the atmosphere of Bikaner during the study. A total number of 6717 fungal spores per sq. cm were counted in the first year and 7117 spores per sq. cm in the second year. The commonest fungal spores encountered were of the species of Cladosporium, followed by Alternaria and Curvularia with annual mean percentage of 24.95%, 23.02% and 11.53 respectively.

Role of MicroRNA-Like RNAs in the Regulation of Spore Morphological Differences in the Entomopathogenic Fungus Metarhizium acridum.

Metarhizium acridum is an important microbial pesticide. Conidia (CO) and blastospores (BS) are two types of spores that occur in different patterns in the M. acridum life cycle and exhibit significant differences in cell morphology, structure, and activity. It may suggest that the fungus has a complex gene regulation mechanism. While previous studies on the differences between CO and BS have mainly focused on cell structure and application, little is known regarding the differences between CO and BS in fungi on the transcriptome levels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs crucial to gene regulation and cell function. Understanding the miRNA-like RNAs (milRNA) and mRNA expression profiles related to cell growth and cellular morphological changes would elucidate the roles of miRNAs in spore morphological differences. In this study, 4,646 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and mainly classified in the GO terms cell, cell part, biological process, and catalytic activity. The KEGG annotation suggested that they were enriched in amino acid biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, ribosome, and oxidative phosphorylation and might be involved in cell activity and structure. There were 113 differentially expressed milRNAs (DEMs), targeting 493 DEGs. Target gene functional analysis revealed that the target genes were mainly enriched in RNA transport, purine metabolism, and the cell cycle. In addition, we identified essential genes from milRNA-mRNA pairs that might participate in cell budding growth and cell membrane and wall integrity, including adenosine deaminase, glycosyl hydrolase, and G-patch domain protein (dno-miR-328-3p), WD repeat-containing protein pop1 (age-miR-127), and GPI-anchored wall transfer protein (cgr-miR-598). MilRNAs might therefore play a crucial role in cell growth and cellular morphological changes as transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulators.

When Specimens Become Environmental Traits: Automating data extraction in aerobiology

The identity of a biological specimen can be considered the most basic type of trait: the species (or higher taxon) the specimen belongs to, one of the three most fundamental data elements (along with location and time) that configure the primary biodiversity data record whose quantification may underpin biological monitoring programs. A general image containing specimens (for example, a photo from a surveillance camera), where individual organisms are to be identified, is akin to an image of a single organism where traits are to be recognized: the individual, often distinct organisms in the image, become the traits of the image. In many cases, automated segmentation and classification/identification and counting of individuals captured within general images containing multiple organisms is most desirable—provided precision and recall exceed a reasonable threshold: that which minimizes the false-positive error rate, as compared to human identification in images. When this occurs, quantitative monitoring data are amenable to good automation, saving much time and human effort. One particularly well-suited case is that of airborne pollen and spore monitoring, hitherto done manually in most of the world. However, systems are being developed that can recognize atmospheric pollen content from images. Two main approaches are possible: either fully automated systems, or recognition from captured field images. In both cases, some instance of artificial intelligence, most often a convolutional neural network, is tasked with the recognition of pollen and spore types, after proper training, from microscopic images. Several problems exist for the wider adoption of such approaches. Among them, the workflow order of segmentation and identification, the portability of the neural network training for different locations, the differences in performance for distinct particle types, and the generation and archival of images: field images vs. individual (segmented) detected specimens, which call for wholly different approaches to metadata. In this presentation we review the general outlook of automated airborne pollen and spore monitoring data, and compare performance data in some specific deep learning settings and workflows, based on actual monitoring work, training and tests with real images.

Signal and regulatory mechanisms involved in spore development of Phytophthora and Peronophythora.

Oomycetes cause hundreds of destructive plant diseases, threatening agricultural production and food security. These fungus-like eukaryotes show multiple sporulation pattern including the production of sporangium, zoospore, chlamydospore and oospore, which are critical for their survival, dispersal and infection on hosts. Recently, genomic and genetic technologies have greatly promoted the study of molecular mechanism of sporulation in the genus Phytophthora and Peronophythora. In this paper, we characterize the types of asexual and sexual spores and review latest progress of these two genera. We summarize the genes encoding G protein, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, transcription factors, RNA-binding protein, autophagy-related proteins and so on, which function in the processes of sporangium production and cleavage, zoospore behaviors and oospore formation. Meanwhile, various molecular, chemical and electrical stimuli in zoospore behaviors are also discussed. Finally, with the molecular mechanism of sporulation in Phytophthora and Peronophythora is gradually being revealed, we propose some thoughts for the further research and provide the alternative strategy for plant protection against phytopathogenic oomycetes.

Genomic versus Plasmid-Borne Expression of Germinant Receptor Proteins in Bacillus cereus Strain 14579

Germinant receptors (GRs) are proteins in the spore-forming bacteria of Bacillus species that are crucial in triggering spore germination by sensing nutrients in the spores’ environment. In the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus cereus strain ATCC 14579, the GerR GR initiates germination with L-alanine. While we have expressed GerR subunits fused to reporter proteins from genes under control of their native promoter on plasmids in this B. cereus strain, here we sought increased flexibility in this work by studying genome integration and plasmid-borne inducible high level (over) expression. However, construction of chromosomal integrants to visualize and localize the GerR B subunit fused to fluorescent reporter protein SGFP2 was not successful in this B. cereus strain using constructs with either shorter (~600 bp) or longer (~1200 bp) regions of homology to the gerR operon. This failure was in contrast to successful IPTG-inducible expression of GerRB-SGFP2 from plasmid pDG148 in vegetative cells and dormant spores, as fluorescent GerRB-SGFP2 foci were present in vegetative cells and the protein was detected by Western blot analysis. In dormant spores, the fluorescence intensity with IPTG-inducible expression from pDG148-gerRB-SGFP2 was significantly higher than in wild type spores. However, the full length GerRB-SGFP2 protein was not detected in spores using Western blots. Clearly, there are still challenges in the construction of B. cereus strains harboring fluorescent reporter proteins in which tagged proteins are encoded by genes incorporated in the chromosome or on extrachromosomal expression plasmids.

The Development of Supplement Book of Mycorrhizal Spore Based on Science Literacy at The Campus Forest in State University of Medan

This study aims to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of the supplement book of mycorrhizal spore based on science literacy at the campus forest in State University of Medan that has been developed. The subjects of this research are material experts, learning experts, design experts, and students who take the Lower Level Organism Taxonomy course in the Department of Biology, State University of Medan. Research and development (R and D) with the Thiagarajan (4D) model, namely: (1) Define data taken from the results of student needs analysis and get a score of 69% Students to need mycorrhizal spore supplement books based on scientific literacy, (2) Design the outline of the supplement book produces four chapters that will be discussed, namely, introduction, the development of mycorrhizae in the tropics, methods of observing mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal fungi on mahogany trees in the Unimed campus forest, (3) Development of field research that has been carried out to obtain results. the results of three genera of mycorrhizal spores found under the tree Swietenia mahogany L, namely Glomus sp. with 28 types of spores, Gigaspora sp. with 4 types of spores, and Acaulospora sp. with 3 types of spores. After the observation results are obtained, it is developed into a supplement book that will be tested for feasibility. The results of the material expert assessment obtained a score of 81% in the very worthy category and 95% for the assessment of scientific literacy aspects in the very worthy category, and the results of the learning expert assessment obtained a score of 85.5% in the very worthy category and the results of the design expert assessment obtained a score of 86.6% in the very worthy category. After the book is declared worthy, the fourth stage is carried out. Dissemination (dissemination) is carried out by individual product trials obtaining a score of 87% in the very worthy category, the small group test obtaining a very worthy score of 89%, and the limited group test obtaining a score of 87% in the very worthy category. To prove whether the developed supplement book is effective for use in the Lower Level Organism Taxonomy course, the N-Gain test obtained a score of 63% in the category of quite effective.

Grasses are able to harbor the oversummering of urediospores and the overwintering of teliospores of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici in China

Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), the cause of wheat stripe rust, is a biotrophic and heteroecious rust fungus with five spore types. Cool and humid climatic conditions are conducive for the development of wheat stripe rust, and in turn, temperatures above 22 °C limit or even cease the disease. The survival of Pst during summer after wheat harvest is responsible for the infection on autumn-sown wheat to maintain disease cycle all the year round. Teliospores formed at late stage of wheat growth are essential for initiating sexual reproduction in spring. Although Chinese native grasses have been experimentally testified as susceptible hosts for Pst and teliospores produced on wheat have been shown to be potential inoculum sources causing infection on alternate hosts (mainly Berberis) in spring, the roles of grass hosts in harboring the survival of urediospores and teliospores of Pst and promoting the emergence of diverse races under field conditions in China have not been known. Herein, Gansu, as a hotspot and an important oversummering region for Pst, was exemplified to demonstrate these roles of grass hosts. As a result, 63 Pst isolates, derived from 2184 uredial samples collected from grass hosts during harvesting period (from mid-June to mid-to-late July) and seeding period (mid to late September) in 2012 and 2013, were identified as 52 diverse phenotypes (82.5%) on the Chinese differential hosts. Subsequently, after inoculation of barberry, 52 Pst isolates with high infection type, 20 known races and 32 new races, were recovered from 1,712 single aecium, which are derived from 35 telial samples of grass hosts. Our experiments showed that Pst urediospores can oversummer on grass species in Gansu or other oversummering regions with similar ecological and climatic conditions. Pst teliospores, which are produced on these grass hosts, are important inoculum source for barberry infection in spring. Therefore, treatment of grasses hosts should be taken into consideration in management of wheat stripe rust.