Types Of Permeable Pavements Research Articles

Prediction of runoff characteristics in permeable pavements using experimental data and intelligent models.

Considering the growing use of permeable pavements, the prediction of runoff passing through this pavement model is of considerable importance. The prediction of rainfall-runoff relationships can be a challenge because of several factors including data uncertainty, non-linear relationships, and high temporal and spatial variability. To deal with these challenges, intelligent algorithms are often used to predict such complex phenomena. In this research, runoff control parameters were investigated in two types of permeable pavements (permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) and high strength clogging resistant permeable pavement (CRP)) using support vector machine (SVM), support vector machine-bat (SVM-BA) and support vector machine-grasshopper (SVM-GOA). Variables used in the models included percentage of coverage by permeable pavement (A), rainfall intensity (I), slope (S), and pavement type coefficient (K) as input data, and runoff coefficient (C), time to runoff (Tr), and peak discharge (Qp) as output data. In this research, from the total of 108 data extracted from the experimental results, 86 data were used in the training period, and 22 data were used in the test period. The results of the test period show that the SVM-BA model has the best performance with values of MAE = 0.010 in predicting C, MAE = 1.330 min in predicting Tr, and MAE = 0.029 lit/min in predicting Qp. The SVM-GOA model is ranked second with values of MAE = 0.051 in predicting C, MAE = 3.285 min in predicting Tr, and MAE = 0.097 lit/min in predicting Qp. Also, the SVM model is ranked third with values of MAE = 0.063 in predicting C, MAE = 4.470 min in predicting Tr, and MAE = 0.121 lit/min in predicting Qp. In summary, the SVM-BA algorithm showed the best performance and the SVM algorithm showed the weakest performance in predicting runoff characteristics in permeable pavements.

Performance of Permeable Pavement to Filter Stormwater Runoff for Non-Potable Uses in Buildings

Permeable pavement benefits, besides stormwater runoff reduction and groundwater recharge, include stormwater harvesting. As an alternative to water resources scarcity, stormwater that reaches a permeable pavement could be filtered by the same pavement and then used for non-potable purposes in buildings. This work aims to evaluate some types of permeable pavements regarding their performance to remove pollutants from stormwater and decrease runoff. Analyses of infiltration capacity and pollutant concentrations were performed in four permeable pavement models with different types of permeable surface layer (porous asphalt mixture and porous interlocked concrete blocks). Then, the data were used to calculate the “stormwater credits” according to the Minnesota Stormwater Manual. The credits were calculated for volume of runoff, and concentrations of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Phosphorus (TP). As a result, the models proved adequate to decrease both stormwater runoff and TSS and TP concentrations. Moreover, models with the porous asphalt mixture as a surface layer were more efficient to reduce the concentration of pollutants. However, for the models evaluated in this work, additional treatment is recommended when stormwater harvested from permeable pavements is meant for non-potable uses in buildings.
 Keywords: buildings, stormwater, credits, non-potable uses.

Clog-Resistant Permeable Pavement: Methods of Performance Measurement

Permeable pavements are considered to be one of the effective measures for LID (i.e. Low Impact Development) and SUDS (i.e. Sustainable Urban Drainage System) globally. The major three types of permeable pavements are (a) pervious concrete (PC), (b) previous asphalt (PA), and (c) permeable interlocked concrete paver (PICP). The performance of all types of permeable is satisfactory at the start of the service life but greatly reduced if not maintained on time. Considering the long lengths of the pavements, measurement of permeability at different locations is a cumbersome and tedious task. Therefore, ease of performance and realistic results are of vital importance. In this study, ASTM C1701/C1701M—17a single ring infiltrometer, Stormwater Infiltration Field Test (SWIFT), and NCAT permeameter Methods are discussed in detail and examined for their relative ease of setting-up, versatility and performance. It is concluded that ASTM C1701/C1701M—17a single ring infiltrometer is the most versatile, easy to set up and produces accurate results.

Seasonal variation in indicator organisms infiltrating from permeable pavement parking lots at the Edison Environmental Center, New Jersey.

Four types of permeable pavements were monitored at the Edison Environmental Center in Edison, New Jersey, for three water quality indicator organisms consisting of fecal coliform, enterococci, and Escherichia coli. This study expands a previously published result based on less than a year of available data. The current study reflects nearly 5 years of data collection with efforts focusing on collection of data in all four seasons to analyze seasonal effects and to understand the effects of pH on infiltrate concentrations. All three indicators were detected in infiltrates from all four permeable surfaces and as well as asphalt and roof runoff. Seasonally, the infiltrate during winter had fewer detections and lower enumerations and was most often significantly different than surface infiltrate and runoff for the other seasons. More significant concentration reductions were observed in summer and fall, and the lowest reduction was observed in winter. Pervious Asphalt treatment removed the most microorganisms for all three indicator organisms. A permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) that was a replacement for pervious concrete during the study performed better than the original PICP most likely due to smaller gap spacing (8mm compared to 12.7mm) and correspondingly smaller specified surface aggregate compared to the original PICP. Percent concentration removal reductions based on geometric means were 89% or greater for PC, PA, and PICP for fecal coliform; 75% or better for PC, PA and PICP for E. coli; and 95% or greater for PC and PA for enterococci, while there were no annual removals for enterococci for original or new PICP nor removals for E. coli for original PICP and minimal removal for fecal coliform for original PICP. The major sources of fecal indicators in the stormwater runoff were most likely from the feces of deer, geese, and other wild animals. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The infiltrate during winter had fewer detections and lower enumerations and was most often significantly different than surface infiltrate and runoff for the other seasons. More significant concentration reductions were observed in summer and fall, and the lowest reduction was observed in winter. Pervious Asphalt treatment removed the most microorganisms for all three indicator organisms.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF STORMPAV GREEN PAVEMENT FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

This study evaluates the stormwater management potential of a green pavement technology for permeable road pavement with subsurface micro-detention storage (StormPav) from a water quality perspective. The system provides integration of permeable pavement with hollow spaces to attenuate peak discharge with design installation using precast products. The environmental assessment was gathered from field experiments to assess the water quality, mosquito breeding capability and infiltration rate in the StormPav. The water quality parameters were determined to assess environmental benefits, which are one of the components of sustainable development. The parameters consist of total suspended solids, pH and alkalinity and they showed identical results to other permeable pavement types. Larvae development was found as early as eight days in stagnant water in the cylindrical hollow section of StormPav. However, the StormPav showed a high permeability rate within 122.45 mm/hr to 168.12 mm/hr at subgrade soil of HSG A soils group with no stagnant water retained in the void section in less than two hours, which nullified the required retention time for larvae development. Hence, StormPav displayed a significant benefit in terms of environmental concern for a sustainable design invention in stormwater management with the presence of subsurface detention storage.

Subsurface Temperature Properties for Three Types of Permeable Pavements in Cold Weather Climates and Implications for Deicer Reduction

Permeable pavement has been shown to be an effective urban stormwater management tool although much is still unknown about freeze-thaw responses and the implications for deicer reduction in cold weather climates. Temperature data from the subsurface of three permeable pavement types—interlocking concrete pavers (PICP), concrete (PC), and asphalt (PA)—were collected over a seven-year period and evaluated. Temperature profiles of all pavements indicate favorable conditions to allow infiltration during winter rain and melting events, with subsurface temperatures remaining above freezing even when air temperatures were below freezing. Data show that PICP surpassed PC and PA with fewer days below freezing, higher temperatures on melt days, slower freeze and faster thaw times, and less penetration of freezing temperatures at depth.

Minimize surface runoff from parking lots with permeable pavement systems

Changes in land use can lead to an increased risk of flooding in an area. One example of flood conditions due to land use change is that occurred in the Diponegoro University Campus area in Tembalang. Most parking lots in this area comprises of conventional paving block system. It is basically a permeable pavement types, but in reality, existing conventional paving block systems cannot infiltrate storm water into the soil. There are two possible causes: first, the type of paving block is not a permeable type of concrete paving block and the second is the open graded base (OGB) and subbase do not have a high permeability, or a combination of both. This condition generates stormwater runoff in this area to be high, and causes on site and/or out side inundation. In this study, permeable paving block system (P2BS) was developed to find the parking lots with zero runoff.

Hydrological impact assessment on permeable road pavement with subsurface precast micro‐detention pond

AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to study stormwater management potential of new permeable pavement with subsurface micro‐detention storage (PPDS) at low‐speed residential suburban area. The main features incorporated permeable pavement of a hollow micro cylinder precast structure with solid hexagon precast concrete as top and bottom covers. The purpose of hollow micro detention design is for rainwater holding and void between the sets is for self‐drying through the side and bottom seepage during rain. The hydrological parameters were obtained from laboratory rainfall simulator experiment. The performance was evaluated via simulation with Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). The outcomes from the physical model matched well with SWMM. A case study was then developed to assess the hydrological impact of PPDS with the existing condition and other types of permeable pavements. Significant variance was observed, where PPDS displayed its best hydrological performances for stormwater management with the presence of subsurface detention storage.

Assessment of Restorative Maintenance Practices on the Infiltration Capacity of Permeable Pavement

Permeable pavement has the potential to be an effective tool in managing stormwater runoff through retention of sediment and other contaminants associated with urban development. The infiltration capacity of permeable pavement declines as more sediment is captured, thereby reducing its ability to treat runoff. Regular restorative maintenance practices can alleviate this issue and prolong the useful life and benefits of the system. Maintenance practices used to restore the infiltration capacity of permeable pavement were evaluated on three surfaces: Permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP), pervious concrete (PC), and porous asphalt (PA). Each of the three test plots received a similar volume of runoff and sediment load from an adjacent, impervious asphalt parking lot. Six different maintenance practices were evaluated over a four-year period: Hand-held pressure washer and vacuum, leaf blower and push broom, vacuum-assisted street cleaner, manual disturbance of PICP aggregate, pressure washing and vacuuming, and compressed air and vacuuming. Of the six practices tested, five were completed on PICP, four on PC, and two on PA. Nearly all forms of maintenance resulted in increased average surface infiltration rates. Increases ranged from 94% to 1703% for PICP, 5% to 169% for PC, and 16% to 40% for PA. Disruption of the aggregate between the joints of PICP, whether by simple hand tools or sophisticated machinery, resulted in significant (p ≤ 0.05) gains in infiltration capacity. Sediment penetrated into the solid matrix of the PC and PA, making maintenance practices using a high-pressure wash followed by high-suction vacuum the most effective for these permeable pavement types. In all instances, when the same maintenance practice was done on multiple surfaces, PICP showed the greatest recovery in infiltration capacity.

Clogging of Permeable Pavements: Case Study

The use of permeable pavements has been an important tool for flood reduction and minimization of the greenhouse effect in urban centers. This type of pavement allows the passage of water and air through its layers and, when designed and applied correctly, may contribute to the reduction of surface runoff during the occurrence of peak flows. The problem with this type of pavement is the decrease in permeability that will inevitably occur due to the use over time. This is called clogging and is caused by the gradual deposition of particulate material between the voids, which originally allowed the rapid passage of water. Studies show that sealing of permeable pavements can occur between 5 and 10 years after their construction, depending on sources of pollution, punctual or diffuse, that can reach the coating layer. In this way, part of the clogging to which the pavement will be exposed can be avoided, even in the design phase, increasing its useful life. This study presents an evaluation of the sealing mechanism in some types of permeable pavements. The evaluation was carried out in the field, through the monitoring of measurements of the permeability coefficient in an area used as light vehicle parking. The measurements were carried out shortly after the work was finished and fourteen months after the release to traffic, which allowed to evaluate the level of natural reduction of the permeability coefficient and the impact on the functioning of the pavement and, in parallel with this evaluation, similar in a simulator, with the empirically accelerated clogging. The objective was to demonstrate that the deposition of residues that cause septum, in most cases, is limited to the coating layer, which would facilitate the cleaning of the pavement, recovering its main functionality, the permeability.

A Comparison of Three Types of Permeable Pavements for Urban Runoff Mitigation in the Semi-Arid South Texas, U.S.A

This study examines the hydrologic and environmental performance of three types of permeable pavement designs: Porous Concrete Pavement (PCP), Permeable Interlocking Concrete (PICP), and Interlocking Block Pavement with Gravel (IBPG) in the semi-arid South Texas. Outflow rate, storage, Normalized Volume Reduction (NVR), Normalized Load Reductions (NLR) of Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) were compared to results obtained from adjacent traditional pavements at different regional parking lots. A notable percentage of peak flow attenuation of approximately 31–100% was observed when permeable pavements were constructed and implemented. IBPG was capable to hold runoff from rainfall depths up to 136 mm prior to flooding. PCP was the most satisfactory in reducing surface runoff (NVR: 2.81 × 10−3 ± 0.67 × 10−3 m3/m2/mm), which was significantly (p < 0.05) higher (98%) than the traditional pavement. PCP was also very effective in TSS removal (NLR: 244 × 10−5 ± 143 × 10−5 kg/m2/mm), which was an increase of over 80% removal than traditional pavement. IBPG (NLR: 7.14 × 10−5 ± 7.19 × 10−5 kg/m2/mm) showed a significantly (p < 0.05) higher (46%) BOD5 removal over traditional pavement. These results demonstrate that the type of permeable pavement and the underlying media can significantly influence the runoff reduction and infiltration in this climatic region.

Long-term effects of three types of permeable pavements on nutrient infiltrate concentrations

There is limited information about long-term effects of permeable pavement parking lots on concentrations of nutrients in infiltrates. A 0.40-ha parking lot that contained three types of permeable pavement including permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP), porous asphalt (PA) and pervious concrete (PC) was constructed in 2010 at a U.S. EPA facility in Edison, New Jersey. This study was conducted from October 2010 to August 2017. Water quality samples were collected from the rainfall, parking lot runoff, and infiltrate from these three pavement types. Samples were analyzed for parameters including NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, TN, PO4-PO4, TOC, ORP and pH. Statistical methods were used to study infiltrate concentration changes with time.Results showed, for all analytes, there were no differences between permeable interlocking concrete pavement and pervious concrete median concentrations. Data showed distribution of species changed and supported nitrification processes. The trend varied with source. Nitrogen species showed slowly increasing trends in rainwater, PC and PICP infiltrate concentrations while phosphate concentration showed a slightly increasing trend in rainwater and porous asphalt infiltrate. It is recommended that communities select PC and PICP when nitrogen species are the pollutants of concern and PA is more suitable for orthophosphate removal.

Flood Mitigation by Permeable Pavements in Chinese Sponge City Construction

It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of permeable pavements on flood mitigation at different spatial scales for their effective application, for example, sponge city construction in China. This study evaluated the effectiveness of three types of permeable pavements (i.e., permeable asphalts (PA), permeable concretes (PC), and permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP)) on flood mitigation at a community scale in China using a hydrological model. In addition, the effects of clogging and initial water content in permeable pavements on flood mitigation performance were assessed. The results indicated that in 12 scenarios, permeable pavements reduced total surface runoff by 1–40% and peak flow by 7–43%, respectively. The hydrological performance of permeable pavements was limited by clogging and initial water content. Clogging resulted in the effectiveness on total surface runoff reduction and peak flow reduction being decreased by 62–92% and 37–65%, respectively. By increasing initial water content at the beginning of the simulation, the effectiveness of total runoff reduction and peak flow reduction decreased by 57–85% and 37–67%, respectively. Overall, among the three types of permeable pavements, PC without clogging had the best performance in terms of flood mitigation, and PICP was the least prone to being clogged. Our findings demonstrate that both the type and the maintenance of permeable pavements have significant effects on their performance in the flood mitigation.

Organism Detection in Permeable Pavement Parking Lot Infiltrates at the Edison Environmental Center, New Jersey.

Three types of permeable pavements were monitored at the Edison Environmental Center in Edison, New Jersey, for indicator organisms such as fecal coliform, enterococci, and Escherichia coli. Results showed that porous asphalt had a much lower concentration in monitored infiltrate compared to pervious concrete and permeable interlocking concrete pavers; concentrations of monitored organisms in infiltrate from porous asphalt were consistently below the bathing water quality standard and actually had limited detection. Fecal coliform and enterococci exceeded bathing water quality standards more than 72 and 34% of the time for permeable interlocking concrete pavers and pervious concrete, respectively. Concentration reductions greater than 90% were observed for all three indicator organisms for porous asphalt and fecal coliform and E. coli for pervious concrete when compared to runoff values, while permeable interlocking concrete pavers only had a modest (39%) observable reduction for E. coli only. The near absence of indicator organisms observed in the porous asphalt infiltrate may be due to the high pH potentially due to asphalt processing. Neither rain intensity nor temperature was demonstrated to have an observable effect in both concentrations of organisms and performance of permeable pavement; but this may due to the limitations of the dataset consisting of 16 events over an 8-month period.

A study of the application of permeable pavements as a sustainable technique for the mitigation of soil sealing in cities: A case study in the south of Spain

The use of ‘Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems’ (SuDS) has become a more sustainable alternative for managing stormwater, greatly reducing the effects of soil sealing. However, the lack of monitored projects is a barrier to their implementation, as the companies which manage sewer systems cannot quantify the impact and cost-efficiency of SuDS. This paper presents a project developed in the south of Spain, in which the hydrological performance of 3 types of permeable pavements has been analyzed. The efficiencies obtained (over 70%), are higher than or similar to the efficiencies of vegetated SuDS, demonstrating the capacity of these pavements for delaying catchment area response and slow flow velocities, reducing the operating costs of sewer systems and the flood risk, while also ensuring service conditions for cities and safety for pedestrian and vehicular circulation. This pilot site has generated results which are sufficiently consistent so as to be representative, and serve as a reference for other cities with a similar climate.

Three Types of Permeable Pavements in Cold Climates: Hydraulic and Environmental Performance

This paper examined and compared the hydraulic and environmental performance of permeable interlocking pavers (PICPs), porous asphalt (PA), and porous concrete (PC) under cold climate conditions in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Assessments were made of their hydraulic performance in terms of storm runoff reduction and surface infiltration capacity, and environmental performance in terms of the removal of several pollutants including total suspended solids (TSS), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP) and, heavy metals: copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn). Results from this paper demonstrated that PA, PC, and PICPs are all effective in mitigating storm runoff under cold climate conditions. Surface infiltration rate was substantially affected by winter sanding materials for PA, PC, and PICPs. Pressure washing was demonstrated to be able to partially restore surface infiltration rates for all three types of pavements. All pavement types in general have the same level of performance in removing TSS, TP, TN, and heavy metals. The removal of TSS, TP, and heavy metals appears to be independent of climatic conditions, whereas TN removal tends to decline with a decrease in pavement temperature.

Temporal evolution modeling of hydraulic and water quality performance of permeable pavements

Summary A mathematical model for predicting hydraulic and water quality performance in both the short- and long-term is proposed based on field measurements for three types of permeable pavements: porous asphalt (PA), porous concrete (PC), and permeable inter-locking concrete pavers (PICP). The model was applied to three field-scale test sites in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The model performance was assessed in terms of hydraulic parameters including time to peak, peak flow and water balance and a water quality variable (the removal rate of total suspended solids). A total of 20 simulated storm events were used for model calibration and verification processes. The proposed model can simulate the outflow hydrographs with a coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) ranging from 0.762 to 0.907, and normalized root-mean-square deviation (NRMSD) ranging from 13.78% to 17.83%. Comparison of the time to peak flow, peak flow, runoff volume and TSS removal rates between the measured and modeled values in model verification phase had a maximum difference of 11%. The results demonstrate that the proposed model is capable of capturing the temporal dynamics of the pavement performance. Therefore, the model has great potential as a practical modeling tool for permeable pavement design and performance assessment.

Nutrient infiltrate concentrations from three permeable pavement types

While permeable pavement is increasingly being used to control stormwater runoff, field-based, side-by-side investigations on the effects different pavement types have on nutrient concentrations present in stormwater runoff are limited. In 2009, the U.S. EPA constructed a 0.4-ha parking lot in Edison, New Jersey, that incorporated permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP), pervious concrete (PC), and porous asphalt (PA). Each permeable pavement type has four, 54.9-m2, lined sections that direct all infiltrate into 5.7-m3 tanks enabling complete volume collection and sampling. This paper highlights the results from a 12-month period when samples were collected from 13 rainfall/runoff events and analyzed for nitrogen species, orthophosphate, and organic carbon. Differences in infiltrate concentrations among the three permeable pavement types were assessed and compared with concentrations in rainwater samples and impervious asphalt runoff samples, which were collected as controls. Contrary to expectations based on the literature, the PA infiltrate had significantly larger total nitrogen (TN) concentrations than runoff and infiltrate from the other two permeable pavement types, indicating that nitrogen leached from materials in the PA strata. There was no significant difference in TN concentration between runoff and infiltrate from either PICP or PC, but TN in runoff was significantly larger than in the rainwater, suggesting meaningful inter-event dry deposition. Similar to other permeable pavement studies, nitrate was the dominant nitrogen species in the infiltrate. The PA infiltrate had significantly larger nitrite and ammonia concentrations than PICP and PC, and this was presumably linked to unexpectedly high pH in the PA infiltrate that greatly exceeded the optimal pH range for nitrifying bacteria. Contrary to the nitrogen results, the PA infiltrate had significantly smaller orthophosphate concentrations than in rainwater, runoff, and infiltrate from PICP and PC, and this was attributed to the high pH in PA infiltrate possibly causing rapid precipitation of orthophosphate with metal cations. Orthophosphate was exported from the PICP and PC, as evidenced by the significantly larger infiltrate concentrations compared with influent sources of rainwater and runoff.

Quantifying evaporation in a permeable pavement system

AbstractStudies quantifying evaporation from permeable pavement systems are limited to a few laboratory studies and one field application. This research quantifies evaporation for a larger field application by measuring the water balance from lined permeable pavement sections. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency constructed a 0.4 ha parking lot in Edison, NJ, that incorporated three different permeable pavement types in the parking lanes – permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP), pervious concrete (PC) and porous asphalt (PA). An impermeable liner installed 0.4 m below the surface in four 11.6 m by 4.74 m sections per each pavement type captures all infiltrating water and routes it to collection tanks that can contain events up to 38 mm. Each section has a design impervious area to permeable pavement area ratio of 0.66:1. Pressure transducers installed in the underdrain collection tanks measured water level for 24 months. Level was converted to volume using depth‐to‐volume ratios for individual collection tanks. Using a water balance approach, the measured infiltrate volume was compared to rainfall volume on an event basis to determine the rainfall retained in the pavement strata and underlying aggregate. Interevent evaporation created additional storage in the pavement and aggregate layers. Events were divided into three groups based on antecedent dry period (ADP) and three 4 month groups of potential evaporation based on historical monthly pan evaporation records. There was a significant difference in rainfall retained among the various combinations of ADP and potential evaporation groups. More rainfall was retained in the pavement and aggregate layers as time between events increased and during warmer months with larger potential evaporation. Average cumulative evaporation from the permeable pavement sections for 134 rainfall events in 24 months was 5.2% of the cumulative rainfall volume, and the range was 2.4–7.6%. Each PC section had more annual evaporation than any individual PICP or PA section. While measureable, evaporation is a small contribution to the total water budget on an annual basis for these systems. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A case study of flow characteristics of permeable pavements by time and space model

Permeable pavement is widely used to improve the water circulation system in urban areas. The advantages of using permeable pavement are the storage of rainwater, reduction of runoff, out-flow delay, and reduction of peak discharge. The outflow characteristics of different types of permeable pavements are explained by runoff coefficients, which define the relationship between runoff and infiltration rate. This study presents a model of cumulative outflow with respect to time explaining the discharge characteristics of permeable pavement. The model can be used to explain storage capacity, delay time, peak discharge rate, and outflow of pavement structure by accumulating total discharge at the surface and subsurface relative to time. For further verification of the model, a rainfall simulation experiment was performed in the field. Based on the data analysis through the developed model, the advantages of different permeable pavements can be characterized.