Types Of Green Infrastructure Research Articles

Transforming Urban Air Quality: Green Infrastructure Strategies for the Urban Centers of Ethiopia

Urban green infrastructure (GI) plays a crucial role in improving air quality by removing pollutants and reducing emissions from structures. However, in Ethiopia, inadequate GI planning, largely due to limited awareness among planners and policymakers, can undermine the benefits of GI and worsen urban air quality issues. In this study, we demonstrate how the GI strategy approach can enhance air quality and assess the negative impacts of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) emitted by certain tree species in Ethiopia, using Hawassa as a case study. We utilized a customized i-Tree Eco model to estimate annual pollutant removal and BVOC emissions and applied the Kriging method in ArcGIS to map their spatial distribution. In Hawassa, GI systems removed 274.2 t of pollutants annually, valued at $1.79 million, with SO2 being the most and CO the least removed pollutants. Air pollution removal was highest during the dry season (37.4%) compared to the long (29.7%) and short rainy seasons (32.9%). Conversely, trees emitted 35.78 t of BVOCs annually, with monoterpene and isoprene being nearly equal contributors. Eucalyptus genus, Casuarina equisetifolia, and Schinus molle species were the top BVOC emitters despite their low population percentages in the study area. While GI types such as urban parks and institutional compounds are effective at pollutant removal, they also exhibit higher BVOC emissions. Our findings highlight the need for optimized species selection, improved GI planning, and enhanced policy support to maximize GI effectiveness, providing valuable insights for planners and policymakers in integrating GI into urban spatial planning.

The Role of Green Infrastructure in Providing Urban Ecosystem Services: Insights from a Bibliometric Perspective

Urban ecosystems, and the services they provide, are a key focus of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, specifically SDG 11, which emphasizes making cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Green infrastructure (GI) is crucial in enhancing citizens’ quality of life and achieving this goal and it can be defined as a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas designed to deliver a range of ecosystem services (ESs). These infrastructures improve ecosystem functioning, protect biodiversity, promote health, support sustainable land and water management, and boost the local green economy. This paper explores the scientific literature on GI and their ESs in cities using bibliometric science. By combining the keywords “Green Infrastructures”, “Ecosystem Services”, and “Cities” with VOSviewer software (1.6.20 version), we analyzed trends over time. Results show growing attention to these topics, emphasizing human well-being, urban resilience, and sustainability. The study also highlights that focusing exclusively on either “Green Infrastructure in Cities” or “Ecosystem Services in Cities” leads to fragmented insights. A more integrated examination of these three domains offers a holistic view and underscores the importance of considering ecosystem disservices. The study further identifies key research directions, including the need for a comprehensive evaluation of diverse GI types, especially those that are under-researched, such as green roofs, sports areas, and wetlands, and the underexplored role of cultural ecosystem services. Additionally, future research should consider both the benefits and disservices of GI to support better urban planning decisions. Finally, integrating biophysical, social, and economic values of ESs is critical for providing more holistic insights and enhancing sustainable urban development. The novelty of this paper lies in its integrated, holistic approach to examining GI and ESs in urban areas, with a focus on ecosystem disservices, insufficient attention to specific GI types, and the role of cultural ecosystem services—each contributing to the creation of more resilient and sustainable cities.

Thermographic Analysis of Green Wall and Green Roof Plant Types under Levels of Water Stress

Urban green infrastructure (UGI) plays a vital role in mitigating climate change risks, including urban development-induced warming. The effective maintenance and monitoring of UGI are essential for detecting early signs of water stress and preventing potential fire hazards. Recent research shows that plants close their stomata under limited soil moisture availability, leading to an increase in leaf temperature. Multi-spectral cameras can detect thermal differentiation during periods of water stress and well-watered conditions. This paper examines the thermography of five characteristic green wall and green roof plant types (Pachysandra terminalis, Lonicera nit. Hohenheimer, Rubus tricolor, Liriope muscari Big Blue, and Hedera algeriensis Bellecour) under different levels of water stress compared to a well-watered reference group measured by thermal cameras. The experiment consists of a (1) pre-test experiment identifying the suitable number of days to create three different levels of water stress, and (2) the main experiment tested the suitability of thermal imaging with a drone to detect water stress in plants across three different dehydration stages. The thermal images were captured analyzed from three different types of green infrastructure. The method was suitable to detect temperature differences between plant types, between levels of water stress, and between GI types. The results show that leaf temperatures were approximately 1–3 °C warmer for water-stressed plants on the green walls, and around 3–6 °C warmer on the green roof compared to reference plants with differences among plant types. These insights are particularly relevant for UGI maintenance strategies and regulations, offering valuable information for sustainable urban planning.

Is Zagreb Green Enough? Influence of Urban Green Spaces on Mitigation of Urban Heat Island: A Satellite-Based Study

The urban heat island phenomenon is a climatic condition in which urbanized areas exhibit higher temperature values than their natural surroundings. This occurs due to an unbalanced energy budget caused by the extensive use of synthetic materials. In such a scenario, urban green areas act as stressors to mitigate the intensity of the urban heat island and improve urban well-being. This study analyzes the spatial-temporal characteristics of the urban heat island in Zagreb, Croatia, aiming to examine the role of different types of green infrastructure in mitigating elevated temperature values and facilitating the definition of greener planning strategies. To achieve this, a multitemporal remote sensing- and NDVI-based analysis was conducted for the time series 1984–2014. An urban heat island intensity map was obtained for the selected 30-year period, along with thermal graphs registering land surface temperature values among different city districts. The results reveal significant heterogeneity, displaying variable behavior dependent on the city district. The role of Zagreb’s urban green areas in urban heat island mitigation is evident but largely dependent on urban morphology, construction types, and periods. Urban forests and urban parks play the most significant role in temperature reduction, followed by residential building neighborhoods and extensive neighborhoods consisting of familiar houses with gardens. Continuously built areas, such as the city center and industrial zones, are less prone to registering lower intensity values. Additionally, multitemporal intensity variations based on land use changes are registered in several districts.

Impact of green infrastructure on PM10 in port-adjacent residential complexes: A finite volume method-based computational fluid dynamics study

This study examines the effects of PM10 reduction by introducing green infrastructure (GI) in residential areas adjacent to ports, where significant pollutant emissions from ships are prevalent. Using finite volume method (FVM)-based computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, we evaluated 30 scenarios based on various GI types and spacings and validated these simulations using observational data. The assessed GI types included trees and shrubs (hedges). Planting configurations were categorized into single (T for trees, H for hedges) and mixed (TH for both trees and hedges) plantings, with one or two rows and spacings of trees from 6 m to 14 m at 2 m intervals. We also considered both aerodynamic and depositional effects as mechanisms for PM10 reduction by GI. Our results revealed the following: 1) Plant spacing significantly influenced PM10 reduction, with both excessively narrow and wide spacings being suboptimal. (2) Trees proved to be more effective, whereas combining them with shrubs offers limited advantages. 3) Among the shrubs, the adsorption effect was more influential on PM10 reduction than the aerodynamic effects. These insights are not limited to port regions but also offer foundational knowledge for enhancing urban air quality, setting the groundwork for subsequent studies.

Reclassification of Green Infrastructure Types and Functions: Focused on Matsudo City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan

Background and objective: Globally, the sustainability of urban areas is being compromised due to indiscriminate urban development, making the creation and management of green spaces increasingly critical. Green spaces play a pivotal role in connecting degraded natural ecosystems, and the concept of Green Infrastructure is gaining prominence as a strategy for managing green networks. A Green Infrastructure (GI) is a network of interconnected green spaces that provide benefits to humans through their utilization and management, fulfilling environmental, social, and economic functions. However, in most urban areas, green spaces lack connectivity between each other and are not managed in an integrated manner. Additionally, the types and functions of green spaces defined by policies and regulations vary, making it challenging to implement GI. Therefore, this study aims to examine and reclassify precursor indicators in order to effectively apply GI to urban strategies. It seeks to discuss management approaches based on GI, with the aim of facilitating its implementation.Methods: The city of Liverpool in the UK has presented a multifunctionality strategy for GI, which has been utilized as a global exemplary case. This study adopts the multifunctionality GI strategy proposed by the city of Liverpool, and reclassifies the types and functions of GI. It selects indicators through Focus Group Interviews(FGI) with GI experts and field surveys. The selected indicators of GI were utilized in a survey for evaluation of multifunctionality. The quantitative data collected through the survey were mapped using overlay techniques, in which led to the deriving a multifunctionality map of GI. In the process of mapping, weights derived from Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) analysis were applied to enhance the reliability of the quantitative data from the survey.Results: In this study, suitable indicators for GI in the study area were selected, and the functionality of each land cover (LC) type was evaluated. As a result, the study area was found to provide multifunctionality within a single land parcel. The highest-scoring LC type is Woodland, and the predominant functional category is Human-Wildlife Coexistence. The lowest-scoring LC type is Cemetery, with the least represented functional category being Timber Production.Conclusion: GI fulfills multiple functions that provide a range of benefits to humans (multifunctionality). To maximize such multifunctionality, it is crucial to manage scores for each functional category according to LC type. GI is not solely focused on specific functions, but also requires strategies to enhance functionalities lacking in LC types with low multifunctionality scores. The GI indicators proposed in this study and the GI multifunctionality assessment can serve as essential data for review when local authorities are formulating spatial plans related to urban areas, green spaces, forests, and other relevant areas.

Temporal and spatial distribution of microplastics in green infrastructures: Rain gardens

Rain gardens, a type of green infrastructure (GI), have been recognized for mitigating flooding and improving water quality from minor storms by trapping stormwater pollutants. Yet, the capability of these systems to retain microplastics (MPs) from stormwater, especially in size <125 μm, remains inadequately understood. This study investigated the spatial and temporal distributions of MPs in three rain gardens located in Newark, New Jersey, USA. The rain gardens have been in operation for ∼7 years and located in different land uses: low-density residential (Site 1), commercial (Site 2), and high-density residential (Site 3). The sediment samples were collected during May 2022, August 2022, and February 2023 at various soil depths and horizontal distances of rain gardens. The MPs were quantified and characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and a Raman microscope. The overall mean concentration varied between sampling sites, with 469 ± 89.8 pkg−1 in Site 1, 604 ± 91.4 pkg−1 in Site 2, and 997 ± 64.3 pkg−1 in Site 3, with Polypropylene as the dominant polymer, followed by nylon and polyethylene. In the vertical direction, larger MPs (250 μm–5 mm) were effectively retained within the top 5 cm and their concentration declined exponentially with the increasing depths. Small-sized MPs (1–250 μm) were prevalent at deeper depths (≥ 10 cm), and no MPs were found below 15 cm. In the horizontal direction, the highest MP concentration was observed near the stormwater inlet, and the concentration decreased away from the inlet. Over the nine-month period, a notable increase in concentration was observed at all sites. These findings contribute valuable knowledge towards developing effective measures for retaining MPs from stormwater and monitoring GIs in urban environments.

Spatial allocation of bioretention cells considering interaction with shallow groundwater: A simulation-optimization approach

Green infrastructure (GI), as one type of ecological stormwater management practices, can potentially alleviate water problems and deliver a wide range of environmental benefits in urban areas. GIs are often planned and designed to reduce runoff and mitigate pollution. However, the influence of GI on groundwater hydrology and that of shallow groundwater on GI performance was seldom considered. This study utilized a calibrated surface-subsurface hydrological model, i.e., Storm Water Management Model coupled with USGS's modular hydrologic model (SWMM-MODFLOW) to consider the interaction between GI and groundwater into the process of GI planning. The optimal implementation ratio, aggregation level and upstream-downstream location of bioretention cells (BC, one type of GI) under different planning objectives and hydrogeologic conditions was explored. The consideration of groundwater management exerted a significant impact on the optimal spatial allocation of BCs. The results showed that when groundwater management was more concerned than runoff control, BCs were recommended to be allocated more apart from each other and more upstream in the catchment because more-distributed and upstream BCs can result in lower groundwater table rise which is beneficial. BCs were overall recommended to be allocated in areas of deeper groundwater tables, coarser soils, and flatter topographies. However, the spatial features of BCs are related to each other, the choice of them are affected by various hydrogeologic factors simultaneously. The exact location of BCs should be determined by considering the trade-off between runoff control efficiency and groundwater impact. The findings obtained in this study can provide guidance on GI planning in shallow groundwater areas.

Projected performance of green infrastructure strategies for flood mitigation in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta

Background: The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) delta – the world’s most populous river delta – faces heightened susceptibility to the rise in flooding disasters due to climate change, impacting millions annually. Current flood management strategies are unsustainable and ineffective, and resilient flood management is needed. A promising alternative is the strategic implementation of green infrastructure (GI) applications, which have proven effective in flood management in other regions. Methods: An analysis of the region’s past and future vulnerability to flooding is conducted. Then, green infrastructure performance metrics from regions with similar climatic conditions are extrapolated for the GBM. Green roofs, permeable pavements, and rain gardens were identified as the most suitable GI types for the GBM. Finally, computer simulations were employed to analyze the performance of different implementations of GI within a model city. Results: The simulations showed that 0% green rooftop coverage, 100% permeable pavement coverage, and 40% rain garden coverage were the most feasible GI layout. This configuration resulted in the most preferable balance between cost effectiveness and reduced runoff. Green rooftops were minimized due to high installation costs relative to their retention capacity, whereas permeable pavements and rain garden coverage were maximized. Conclusions: The studies show GI’s potential for flood mitigation and resilience in the GBM region. GI initiatives align with the region's flood mitigation policies and are thus feasible to implement with aid from government incentives. Furthermore, the computer program developed for this analysis could serve as a valuable tool for assessing GI implementation limits and offering guidance to policymakers.

A transferable approach to assessing green infrastructure types (GITs) and their effects on surface urban heat islands with multi-source geospatial data

Urban green infrastructure (GI) is essential for mitigating surface urban heat islands (SUHIs) and strengthening urban resilience to climate change, thereby contributing to the achievement of sustainable development goals in urban areas. A ‘green infrastructure types’ (GITs) scheme was recently developed to examine the role of amount, composition, and configuration of GI in providing effective thermal cooling in Australia. However, the GIT scheme has not been applied to an urban environment in other countries, so its general suitability for SUHI assessment needs to be further investigated. Taking the urban core area of Beijing as a case study, a multi-level classification method was developed in this study for GIT mapping using bi-seasonal high-resolution Gaofen-1 satellite imagery, time-series Sentinel-2 A/B and SDGSAT-1 satellite data, and open vector datasets. The time series of 30 m land surface temperature (LST) data was created by blending high temporal resolution MODIS and Landsat data. Statistical analysis was performed to identify factors that may influence the cooling effect of GI. The results demonstrate significant LST differences among the GITs in summer. The aquatic GITs with a water fraction >50% (5.6–7.6 °C) and pervious GITs with a high tree fraction (5.4–5.6 °C) provided the largest cooling effect. The cooling capacity of mixed and pervious GITs was found closely related to the proportion of pervious surface and woody vegetation. Increasing the area of irrigated grass from low (28%) to medium (61%) in mixed surfaces produced only a marginal effect on surrounding LSTs. The GIT mapping approach combined with SUHI analysis provides a transferable and promising framework for examining the cooling effect of GI at the neighborhood level in a consistent manner.

A valuation study to identify the determinants of the demand for time spent outdoors among users of hospital facilities, their willingness-to-pay for green infrastructure improvements, and the implications for planning

ABSTRACT Green infrastructure has been promoted as an urban planning tool for the achievement of health and environmental policy objectives. The capacity of economic valuation methods to estimate monetary benefit values for intangible goods, such as mental health and wellbeing, renders them useful in justifying green infrastructure interventions and guiding their implementation. In this case study we used stated preference methods to elicit cross-sectional data on the preferences of staff (n=118), visitors (n=88), and inpatients (n=35) of Musgrave Park Hospital in Northern Ireland, for improvements in the hospital’s outdoor grounds. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to use the contingent behavior method to examine the demand for time spent on the improved outdoor grounds of a hospital and the first to use the contingent valuation method to obtain the respective willingness-to-pay values. The results show that the three hospital user groups differed in their preferred types of green infrastructure and their motivations for using the outdoor grounds, an important input for planning the transformation of the outdoors. Other findings suggest that to maximize health and well-being benefits, complementary measures to address the issues of sedentary lifestyles and inadequate use of the outdoors as a stress-coping mechanism are needed.

Modeling benefits and tradeoffs of green infrastructure: Evaluating and extending parsimonious models for neighborhood stormwater planning

Green infrastructure is often proposed to complement conventional urban stormwater management systems that are stressed by extreme storms and expanding impervious surfaces. Established hydrological and hydraulic models inform stormwater engineering but are time- and data-intensive or aspatial, rendering them inadequate for rapid exploration of solutions. Simple spreadsheet models support quick site plan assessments but cannot adequately represent spatial interactions beyond a site. The present study builds on the Landscape Green Infrastructure Design (L-GrID) Model, a process-based spatial model that enables rapid development and exploration of green infrastructure scenarios to mitigate neighborhood flooding. We first explored how well L-GrID could replicate flooding reports in a neighborhood in Chicago, Illinois, USA, to evaluate its potential for green infrastructure planning. Although not meant for prediction, L-GrID was able to replicate the flooding reported and helped identify strategies for flood control. Once evaluated for this neighborhood, we extended the model to include water quality through the representation of dispersion and settling mechanisms for two pollutant surrogates—total nitrogen and total suspended solids. With the extended model, Landscape Green Infrastructure Design Model-Water Quality (L-GrID-WQ), we examined benefits, costs, and tradeoffs for different green infrastructure strategies. Bioswales were slightly more effective than other green infrastructure types in reducing flooding extent and downstream runoff and pollution, through increased infiltration and settling capacity. Permeable pavers followed in effectiveness and are suggested where spatial constraints may limit the installation of bioswales. Although green infrastructure supports both flooding and pollution control, small tradeoffs between these functions emerged across spatial layouts: strategies based on only curb-cuts better controlled pollution, while layouts that followed the path of water flow better controlled flooding. By illuminating such tradeoffs, L-GrID-WQ can support green infrastructure planning that prioritizes unique concerns in different areas of a landscape.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Green Infrastructure: A Systematic Exploration of Definitions and Their Origins

Green Infrastructure (GI) is rooted in ecology and cuts across multiple disciplines, including landscape architecture, environmental sciences, planning, policy, and engineering. Likewise, the definition of this concept also cuts across disciplines, which creates ambiguity around what GI is and what makes up GI in practice—for example, mistaking bioswales for regular tree planters or green space within communities in which they are installed. We undertook a systematic literature review of 38 peer-reviewed articles for this study using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) method to identify and synthesize the different disciplinary definitions of GI in the literature. This study also presents the types of GI systems mentioned in the peer-reviewed articles while identifying other benefits apart from the primary benefit of GI installation, which is stormwater management. The analysis revealed three clusters of GI definitions: (I) Interconnected natural areas and other open spaces, (II) Strategically planned natural and semi-natural areas, and (III) Decentralized systems and techniques. However, we got rid of the third cluster during the analysis because GI is known to be a decentralized system, and the definition region could not be tracked. These clusters represent a spectrum, one of which employs the structure of natural systems already in place to support human goals (bio-inclusivity). The other includes living systems as components within engineered solutions to achieve objectives (bio-integration). This review points to the need for an encompassing definition that cuts across disciplines with a consensus on the adoption and concise categorization of GI types and the multiple benefits they provide to humans and ecosystems. A consensus definition helps clear misconceptions and improve the understanding of GI, potentially improving receptivity towards these solutions within communities from a community member perspective.

Sustainable management of urban forest "Kosutnjak"

Urban forests represent networks, that is systems, that include forests, groups of trees, and individual trees in urban and peri-urban areas. They are one of the primary types of green infrastructure in cities, enhancing living conditions for residents and providing a wide range of ecosystem services. This paper analyzes the urban forest of Kosutnjak, whose area extends into the urban core of Belgrade. The needs of its users have been analyzed, as well as the current management practices, all with the aim of formulating proposals for measures to achieve a resilient ecosystem and establish sustainable management of this protected area. Additionally, the goal of the conducted research is to raise awareness among residents about the benefits provided by this urban forest, as well as its cultural and historical significance, which gives this area national importance.

Potential Impacts of Green Infrastructure on NOx and PM10 in Different Local Climate Zones of Brindisi, Italy

This study delves into Green Infrastructure (GI) planning in Brindisi, Italy, evaluating its influence on urban air quality and thermal comfort. Employing an LCZ-centered Geographic Information System (GIS)-based classification protocol, the prevalence of LCZ 6 (Open low-rise) and LCZ 2 (Compact mid-rise) is highlighted. Despite generally low PM10 levels in Brindisi, intermittent NOx spikes surpassing WHO and EU standards pose health risks. Within LCZ 2, diverse GI interventions (green walls, hedges, trees) were tested, with green walls emerging as the most effective, albeit falling short of expectations, while trees exhibited adverse air quality impacts. LCZ 6 demonstrated enhanced air quality attributed to wind patterns, GI, and urban canyon improvements. Thermal comfort analysis consistently revealed positive outcomes across various GI types, reducing discomfort by a minimum of 10%. The study emphasized GI’s favorable comfort impact on sidewalks but cautioned against trees in street canyons with aspect ratios exceeding 0.7, heightening pollutant levels and implying increased exposure risks. Conversely, street canyons with lower aspect ratios displayed variable conditions influenced by prevailing regional wind patterns. In conclusion, the integrated assessment of LCZ and GI holds promise for informed urban planning, guiding decisions that prioritize healthier, more sustainable cities. This underscores the crucial need to balance GI strategies for optimal urban development, aligning with the overarching goal of promoting urban well-being and sustainability.

A lack of focus on data sharing, stakeholders, and economic benefits in current global green infrastructure planning

Green infrastructure (GI) is increasingly popular in solving urban environmental challenges and enhancing ecosystem services. Yet the research status and challenges of GI planning have not been comprehensively benchmarked to date. We explored the GI types, actions, goals, and spatiotemporal characteristics of GI planning cases worldwide based on the available literature. The challenges of GI planning were also investigated by the cases included in this manuscript. Additionally, the urban governance solutions to address these challenges were proposed. We found that multi-type GI planning is the most popular. Data sharing, stakeholder participation, economic benefits and research funding for GI planning research were generally inadequate, although they have improved trend over time. Multiple-goal GI planning frequently has higher levels of data sharing, stakeholder participation and economic benefits than GI planning that just takes into account one purpose. We conclude that the future transformation of GI planning requires efficient data sharing mechanisms, effective co-design among stakeholders, systematic business models, and available research funding.

Enhancing Access to Urban Hill Parks: The Montjuïc Trail Masterplan and the 360° Route Design in Barcelona

The 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include ensuring universal and safe access to green spaces. Some cities feature extensive green areas on hills or elevated terrains integrated into the urban landscape. In such cases where the benefits for users are highly pronounced (e.g., views, isolation, etc.), it is challenging and particularly complex to design strategies to ensure accessible and spatial routes due to multiple slopes and a challenging topography. In Barcelona, the iconic Montjuïc mountain has been the focal point of a trail masterplan aimed at rethinking its various access points and internal network of routes. Furthermore, the city has committed to implementing an initial project from this plan, the so-called 360° route. This study presents an in-depth analysis of the Montjuïc mountain case, encompassing both the plan and the 360° project in hilly urban parks. The analysis reveals the values and transferability of the set of strategies proposed in the plan, such as activating inherent location characteristics by connecting the surrounding urban fabric with elements of recreational potential within the underlying traces of heritage value. Additionally, a quantitative assessment of the impact of the proposed accesses on the population is presented. The study highlights the improvements in quality of life for the diverse users of this type of green infrastructure.

Which Plant Species for Green Roofs in the Mediterranean Environment?

In recent years, owing to intense urbanization and global change with the consequent extreme climate effects, interest in green roofs, even extensive ones, in the Mediterranean environment has increased. To this end, the choice of plant species is crucial because, owing to the identification of the most suitable plants, it will be possible to expand this type of green infrastructure and increase its ecosystem services in the urban environment. In this context, the objective of the review, through a critical analysis of some of the references on the topic, is to identify suitable criteria for plant species selection that are simple to apply and able to respond to the need to have plants capable of surviving, ensuring a suitable aesthetic effect, and providing essential ecosystem services. We also investigated whether, and to what extent, associations of different species can better adapt to the difficult environmental conditions of Mediterranean green roofs. Two possible strategies to identify the plant idiotype were analyzed: the analysis of plants present in habitat analogues or the identification of morpho-functional characters capable of discriminating the response to abiotic stress, and in particular to drought stress. The use of plant communities, rather than a single species, seems capable of improving aesthetic effects, plant survival, and ecosystem services.

Exploring socio-ecological inequalities in heat by multiple and composite greenness metrics: A case study in Belfast, UK

In light of pressing environmental and social justice challenges, levels of interest in green infrastructure as a possible solution have increased markedly for reasons related to both climate change adaptation and enhancing quality living environments. This study explores how green infrastructure influences the urban heat island effects experienced by communities across the socio-economic strata found in Belfast. To avoid scale effects and obtain accurate results, we devise multiple and scale-composite greenness metrics to assess the distribution of green infrastructure based on each residential unit. The results indicate that despite widespread recognition that green infrastructure significantly contributes to the mitigation of heat island intensity, socio-economically deprived communities are exposed to greater urban heat. Further examinations identified the close correlations between green infrastructure distribution and socio-economic factors, which relate to two major spatial patterns: that the suburbs are better catered for than the inner city, and that south and east Belfast are better than west and north. Moreover, our findings identified a tendency that communities with higher proportions of female- and ageing- populations have greater greenness and are less exposed to heat, which suggests the distributional and environmental injustice in GI provision and related heat adaptation are driven by the underlying socio-economic dynamics and the vulnerable groups may change based on local context. Overall, we found that there is a need to incorporate and prioritise different types of green infrastructure in plans for heat adaptation and to integrate green infrastructure development with environmental justice in areas that suffer socio-ecological deprivation in mitigating urban heat island effects.

Biochar Benefits Green Infrastructure: Global Meta-Analysis and Synthesis.

Urbanization has degraded ecosystem services on a global scale, and cities are vulnerable to long-term stresses and risks exacerbated by climate change. Green infrastructure (GI) has been increasingly implemented in cities to improve ecosystem functions and enhance city resilience, yet GI degradation or failure is common. Biochar has been recently suggested as an ideal substrate additive for a range of GI types due to its favorable properties; however, the generality of biochar benefits the GI ecosystem function, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we present a global meta-analysis and synthesis and demonstrate that biochar additions pervasively benefit a wide range of ecosystem functions on GI. Biochar applications were found to improve substrate water retention capacity by 23% and enhance substrate nutrients by 12-31%, contributing to a 33% increase in plant total biomass. Improved substrate physicochemical properties and plant growth together reduce discharge water volume and improve discharge water quality from GI. In addition, biochar increases microbial biomass on GI by ∼150% due to the presence of biochar pores and enhanced microbial growth conditions, while also reducing CO2 and N2O emissions. Overall results suggest that biochar has great potential to enhance GI ecosystem functions as well as urban sustainability and resilience.