Dry Type Research Articles

Modelling of potential vegetation identifies diverging expectable outcomes of river floodplain widening

River re-naturalisations are at the forefront of conservation efforts. The hope is that these interventions will benefit both local ecosystems and facilitate flood mitigation. While hydrological modelling has been a standard procedure in assessing the outcomes of river re-naturalisations, vegetation modelling has not always been performed as part of these assessments. We hypothesised that the use of potential vegetation modelling, i.e. the modelling of self-sustainable vegetation that can survive after the intervention, can provide insight into vegetation outcome of river re-naturalisation and can thus support vegetation restoration and conservation planning. We investigated the utility of potential vegetation modelling under a specific, widespread element of river re-naturalisation: river floodplain widening at three study sites along the Tisza River in Hungary. We applied potential vegetation modelling, in addition to hydrological and groundwater modelling, to assess the expected vegetation outcome of the river floodplain widening. Flood frequency and duration were assessed by the HEC-RAS hydrological model. Based on the output this hydrological model provided, expected values of the water-related explanatory variables (including groundwater level) were calculated. Statistical relationships encompassed by the existing mulitple potential vegetation (MPV) models of Hungary were applied to the environmental variable sets corresponding to conditions before and after floodplain widening (pre- and post-treatment, respectively), including water-related and other explanatory variables. This resulted in predicted potential vegetation distribution for pre-treatment and post-treatment conditions, which were then compared via ordinations and PERMANOVA. At two of the study sites, post-treatment potential vegetation prediction typically showed vegetation types requiring wetter and less saline conditions when compared to the pre-treatment potential vegetation distribution. This pattern corresponds to general expectations given river floodplain widening. However, at one of the sites, the potentiality of saline and non-saline steppe vegetation was actually more pronounced under the expected post-treatment conditions than those before widening. The strengthening of the potentiality of dry vegetation types can be explained by the minor environmental differences related to the microrelief. As the studied sites were all located in the lowlands where geomorphological variation is small, the effect of these minor geomorphological differences on post-treatment potential vegetation would have remained hidden without applying MPV models. In conclusion, scenarios that employ MPV models help predict river restoration outcomes more accurately and can help identify factors that might otherwise be overlooked. Thus, when combined with physical modelling of river flow, their use can aid in the restoration and landscape planning decisions in river re-naturalisation projects.

Innovative vs classical methods for drying heterotrophic Chlorella vulgaris: Impact on protein quality and sensory properties

Drying is a necessary step in the microalgae production chain to reduce microbial load and oxidative degradation of the end product. Depending on the differences in applied temperature and treatment time, the process of drying can have a substantial impact on protein quality and aroma, important characteristics determining the incorporation potential in food products. In this study, we compared the drying of heterotrophic Chorella vulgaris with both innovative (agitated thin film drying (ATFD), pulse combustion drying (PCD) and solar drying (SolD)) and commonly used drying techniques (spray drying (SprD) and freeze drying (FD)). To evaluate the impact on protein quality, we evaluated techno-functional properties, in vitro digestibility (INFOGEST) as well as protein denaturation using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). A sensory analysis was performed by a trained expert panel, combined with headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) - gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) to determine volatile organic compounds (VOCs). ATFD was found to increase techno-functional properties such as gelling, water holding and solubility as well as in vitro protein digestibility. These observations could be related to induced cell disruption and protein denaturation by ATFD. Sensory analysis indicated an increased earthy off-flavor after ATFD. Interestingly, the high-temperature PCD led to an increase in cacao odor while low-temperature FD resulted in lower flavor, odors and VOCs. These results demonstrate that protein quality and sensorial properties of C. vulgaris can be steered through the type of drying, which could help in the selection of application-specific drying methods. Overall, this work could promote the incorporation of microalgal single cell proteins in different innovative food products.

Angiosperm-wide analysis of fruit and ovary evolution aided by a new nuclear phylogeny supports association of the same ovary type with both dry and fleshy fruits.

Fruit functions in seed protection and dispersal and belongs to many dry and fleshy types, yet their evolutionary pattern remains unclear in part due to uncertainties in the phylogenetic relationships among several orders and families. Thus we used nuclear genes of 502 angiosperm species representing 231 families to reconstruct a well supported phylogeny, with resolved relationships for orders and families with previously uncertain placements. Using this phylogeny as a framework, molecular dating supports a Triassic origin of the crown angiosperms, followed by the emergence of most orders in the Jurassic and Cretaceous and their rise to ecological dominance during the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution. The robust phylogeny allowed an examination of the evolutionary pattern of fruit and ovary types, revealing a trend of parallel carpel fusions during early diversifications in eudicots, monocots, and magnoliids. Moreover, taxa in the same order or family with the same ovary type can develop either dry or fleshy fruits with strong correlations between specific types of dry and fleshy fruits; such associations of ovary, dry and fleshy fruits define several ovary-fruit "modules" each found in multiple families. One of the frequent modules has an ovary containing multiple ovules, capsules and berries, and another with an ovary having one or two ovules, achenes (or other single-seeded dry fruits) and drupes. This new perspective of relationships among fruit types highlights the closeness of specific dry and fleshy fruit types, such as capsule and berry, that develop from the same ovary type and belong to the same module relative to dry and fleshy fruits of other modules (such as achenes and drupes). Further analyses of gene families containing known genes for ovary and fruit development identified phylogenetic nodes with multiple gene duplications, supporting a possible role of whole-genome duplications, in combination with climate changes and animal behaviors, in angiosperm fruit and ovary diversification.

Dynamic shifts in predator diel activity patterns across landscapes and threat levels

Understanding the constraints that dominant predators impose on subordinate species is important for predicting ecosystem dynamics and anticipating outcomes of predator management. Subordinate predators may avoid dominant predators in time or space, making it difficult to quantify antipredator behaviours unless joint spatiotemporal analyses are used. Here, we test whether an invasive dominant predator (red fox Vulpes vulpes) alters the spatiotemporal activity of an invasive subordinate predator (feral cat Felis catus). We collated records of both species from 3667 camera‐traps deployed experimentally across two regions of south‐eastern Australia with simplified predator guilds. Foxes were poison‐baited in some landscapes within each region. We used generalised additive models to quantify changes in predator spatiotemporal activity across geographic space, vegetation types, human footprints and (artificially manipulated) gradients of dominant predator activity. Foxes and cats had similar diel activity patterns when averaged across all sites, but there was important differentiation at a finer scale: cats did not reduce their spatial activity but shifted diel patterns when localised fox activity was high. Cats were crepuscular on average. However, across dry vegetation types of both regions (where foxes were nocturnal), cats shifted to diurnal behaviour with increasing fox activity. In contrast, fox activity was relatively consistent throughout the daily cycle in the wet forest; here cats avoided dawn when fox activity was high. Changes in cat diel activity patterns may facilitate spatial coexistence between these two invasive predators, potentially shifting feral cat impacts onto different native prey. While it is well‐appreciated that predator activity varies spatially and fluctuates throughout the daily cycle,our study demonstrates that diel activity patterns also vary across space, likely mediated by both landscape‐context and fear. Dominant predator avoidance in time also appears to be spatially dynamic – a key nuance overlooked when simply comparing the average activity overlap between two species.

Dry ice sublimation performance as affected by binding agent, density, and age

AbstractDry ice is one of the world's most in‐demand commodities for cold chain distribution of temperature sensitive products in insulated shippers. A commonly used rule of thumb is that dry ice sublimates about 8% every 24 h, without consideration for dry ice type, size, or geometry. This study explored sublimation rates of dry ice composition (binding agent and density), age, and geometry (size and shape). Dry ice block manufacturing often involves dosing propylene glycol‐water “binder” solution to liquid carbon dioxide. Tests performed in this study revealed that the binding agent did not influence the dry ice sublimation rate. Dry ice density was found to impact sublimation rate. Fresh and aged blocks of similar dimensions and mass were found to have similar performance outcomes. Mass loss curves for pellets and various sized dry ice blocks showed a dependence on surface area and volume. Chunked blocks and pellets with and without binding agent sublimated at similar rates of 2.84 and 2.53% h−1 (w/w), respectively, whereas block varieties with significantly lower surface area to volume ratios had lower sublimation rates of 0.98–1.60% h−1.

Threats to the persistence of sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) in the western USA

This study assesses how numerous stressors shape the vital rates (survival, growth, and fecundity) of sugar pine across the vast majority of its range. Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.) is the largest Pinus species, an important timber species, and a component of several dry conifer forest types of western North America, in particular the extensive Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. The species faces several challenges in the Anthropocene, including a disrupted fire regime, an invasive pathogen, forest structure changes, and drought with ensuing bark beetle epidemics. Managers are concerned about the conservation outlook for sugar pine, but it is unclear where and how to best invest conservation resources. Using data from the US Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis program, we estimate the parameters for the vital rate functions and use these to construct an integral projection model which predicts the effects of various stressors on the asymptotic population growth rate. The asymptotic population growth rate is near or slightly below one even under reference conditions, and the actual abundance (in terms of both stem density and basal area) slightly declined over the duration of the study (2001–2019). The analysis reveals that wildfire, white pine blister rust, and forest density are key drivers of the demographic rates of sugar pine across its range. Drought and site dryness had lesser, but still meaningful, effects. Fire has strong negative effects on survival, resulting in a strongly negative population trajectory on burned sites. Conversely, lower than average forest density (plot-level basal area) results in a positive population growth rate via beneficial effects on individual growth. These results highlight the value of fire hazard mitigation, particularly where it also reduces forest density, in the conservation of this important species.

A Review of Hybrid and Green House Type Solar Dryers

Solar drying is a renewable, efficient, cheap, and sustainable method of preserving agricultural produce. Recent trends in hybrid and greenhouse–type solar dryers were studied. The study revealed that hybrid and greenhouse–type dryers are robust and efficient because they are mostly embedded with heat generating and circulation systems. They are designed to accommodate large-scale drying of fruits and vegetables with higher rates of drying, reduced drying time and some other specific advantages. Findings also revealed that hybrid and greenhouse type solar dryers are mostly designed for optimum retention of heat to compensate for periods with low illumination. The study also gave insight into design challenges peculiar to these types of dryers, and further revealed that most of the fabrications were based on assumptions, with limited data as references. This review also highlights the cost of procurement, uniformity of airflow, sizing of blower and material selection as some of the factors limiting the utilization of hybrid and greenhouse type solar dryers for drying of fruits, vegetables, and other staple crops.

High frequency modeling of dry type detuned reactor for transient studies: Simulation and experimental analyses

Dry-type detuned reactor (DDR) is a key component for power quality management. Improper design of DDR may result in insulation failure during power system transient events. This can be avoided by developing a proper DDR high frequency model that can accurately capture the behavior of the reactor during transients and provide better insight into its performance under various operating conditions. One of the main challenges of proper DDR modeling is the shape of the leakage flux, which is strongly dependent on the shielding effect of the foil conductors and hence affecting the winding frequency response at high frequencies. This paper proposes a high-frequency lumped equivalent circuit model for DDR with frequency-dependent parameters. The frequency-dependent inductances and resistances are calculated using anisotropic equivalent complex permeability to represent the damping effects in the core and winding. A combined analytical-finite element modelling approach is employed to calculate the winding capacitances. The accuracy of the proposed model is verified by comparing its frequency response with the experimental results obtained from a laboratory prototype. Furthermore, the impulse voltage distribution within the windings is obtained through simulation and measurement analyses to attest the robustness of the proposed model. The proposed model is expected to aid in the proper design and optimization of DDR to improve its insulation withstand capability and enhance its performance during transient events within power grids.

Prevalence of acne vulgaris, its contributing factors, and treatment satisfaction among the Saudi population in the Western Region of Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study

Objective: The current study aimed to assess the prevalence of acne vulgaris, its contributing factors, and treatment satisfaction among the Saudi population in the Western region of Saudi Arabia. Methods: The research employed a cross-sectional design with 390 participants, utilizing a convenience sampling technique. An online questionnaire was distributed via the Internet for data collection. Results: The results revealed that the majority of the participants had either oily (33.8%) or mixed (35.9%) skin, while dry (14.6%) and normal (15.6%) skin types were less common. In terms of acne severity, the largest proportion of participants reported experiencing mild acne (49.2%), followed by those with no acne (36.4%), moderate acne (11.8%), and severe acne (2.6%). Regarding dermatological factors, acne scarring was observed in 45.9% of the participants, and post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation was also prevalent, with 45.1% of the participants experiencing it. In terms of psychological factors, shyness was reported by 37.2% of the individuals, and depression was noted in 16.2% of the participants. The individuals aged 15-24 years demonstrated a higher odds ratio (3.153) as compared to other groups indicating a potential association between younger age and the condition. The females exhibited a higher odds ratio (1.838) as compared to males, albeit not statistically significant. Conclusion: This study revealed a considerable impact of acne on individuals. Additionally, the presence of acne scarring, along with psychological challenges such as shyness, depression, and social isolation, underscores the necessity for comprehensive skincare approaches addressing both physical and mental health aspects.

Application of Green Technologies to Reduce Impacts of Urban Non-Point Sources Pollution

Storm water runoff from different types of urban catchments and discharge from LID system applied in urban catchments were monitored since 2009 to 2017 in Kongju National University. The performance of green technology (GI) system was evaluated to mitigate the problem like pollutant treatment and restore natural hydrological cycle. The result showed that the urban catchments were sources of pollutants like sediments, organics, nutrients and heavy metals. Thus, the concentrations of these pollutants are highly dependent on the antecedent dry days and types of catchments. Since, roads and parking lots observed higher concentration of sediment and organics however heavy metals were highly contributed by the rooftop areas. Moreover, the application of green technologies could be a better solution to mitigate the problems associated with urbanization. Similarly, GI technology were highly significant to reduce runoff generated and can restore natural hydrological cycle. Lastly, the pollutant removal efficiency of different system was significant due to application of different media and plants.

Variations in Ecuadorian Cocoa Fermentation and Drying at Two Locations: Implications for Quality and Sensory.

In Ecuador, various processes are applied during cocoa post-harvesting. This study, therefore, explored fermentation parameters across two locations with 2-7 independent runs, focusing on temperature, microbial counts, pH during fermentation and drying, and their impact on cocoa bean quality. Factors including fermentation devices (jute bags, plastic bags, and wooden boxes), pre-drying, turning during fermentation, fermentation duration, and drying temperature were investigated. Fermenting in plastic bags without pre-drying or turning and fermenting in jute bags for only 40 ± 2.0 h yielded low maximal fermentation temperatures Tmax (31.1 ± 0.4 °C and 37.6 ± 1.8 °C), leading to bitter, astringent, woody, and earthy cocoa liquor. Longer fermentation (63 ± 6 h) in wooden boxes with turning (Wt) and in jute bags with pre-drying and turning (Jpt) achieved the highest Tmax of 46.5 ± 2.0 °C, and a more acidic cocoa liquor, particularly in Wt (both locations) and Jpt (location E). Therefore, it is recommended to ferment for a minimum duration from day 1 to 4 (63 ± 6 h), whether using plastic bags (with mandatory pre-drying) or jute bags (with or without pre-drying or turning). Furthermore, this study underscores the risks associated with excessively high drying temperatures (up to 95.2 ± 13.7 °C) and specific dryer types, which can falsify cut-tests and introduce unwanted burnt-roasted off-flavors in the cocoa liquor.

FTIR and XRD Characterization of the Cements Available in Commercial Market of Nepal

In the engineering material characterizations and analytical domains where the specific physicochemical properties of the materials are probed through various sophisticated instrumental tools and techniques, the XRD and FTIR spectroscopy stand as the standalone applications as the former discloses the crystallographic structure, crystallite/grain sizes, and the chemical compositions of the specific materials nondestructively while the latter reveals details about the IR active vibrations modes of each covalent bond of their chemical constituents. In the present studies, we employ both of these techniques, and characterize the specifically selected variable manufactured ready-to-use dry OPC type cements available in the commercial markets of Nepal. The former technique derived the specific 2\(\theta\) value deterministic for identifying the closely packed interatomic layers with the significant levels of CaCO3, Ca(OH)2, and arsenic As5+ based AsO43- unit bearing crystalline phases in each samples. The calculated crystallite sizes of them are found as equal as that reported for the calcite based OPC cements, and are directly adopted to depict their utmost intermixing propensities with the carbon dust and hence, act as the most potential evidence of unlocking the possibility of inventing cement-carbon composites based supercapacitors and conductive devices, and of speculating their distinguishable hydration rates and setting times. And, the latter technique produced intense IR active bands in the designated wave number regions are used to confirm their silicate (SiO42-) tetrahedra, amorphous CaCO3 phases & the CO32-unit holding chemical constituents, 2CaO.SiO2 and 3CaO.SiO2 type chemical compounds explicitly. The presence of diffused type IR bands specific to the Al2O3 based chemical compounds signified that all of them contains significant levels of the alumina based hardening elements, but the complete absence of the peak typical to the Mg-O signified that none of them contains magnesia. The similar analyses of the IR bands further reveal that none of them possesses heavy and active type CaCO3, but have trace amounts of the AsO43- based chemical compounds as predicted by the XRD. The intensive peak area and the depth intensity studies of the designated IR bands speculate the dissimilar quantitative proportions and percentage compositions of these chemical constituents in them. The authors believe that the general results presented herewith illuminate the fundamental chemical constituents to be incorporated compulsorily into the OPC type cements so that they function normally and exhibit good cementitious abilities.

SIMULATION OF THE PROCESS OF VIBRATING SUNFLOWER DRYING

This work is devoted to the research and substantiation of the technology of drying sunflower seeds and the development of technological and technical proposals for the creation of drying equipment that would ensure work on this crop, both in seed and food modes. The technological value of sunflower seeds is determined by their oil content. Therefore, it is important to preserve the quantity and quality of oil. Under optimal drying conditions, the oil content in sunflower seeds increases. Therefore, the question of selecting technological equipment for the drying process arises. Analysis of the mechanical and technological parameters of series-produced dryers showed that these machines are mainly intended for the processing of grain crops. The disadvantages of well-known mine grain dryers are low moisture removal during one pass of the material through the dryer, overheating of the seed and a decrease in its quality in the area of contact with the surface of the intake boxes, increased fire hazard. Drum grain dryers when drying sunflower seeds are very fire-hazardous and do not allow obtaining seeds with uniform moisture content, and the use of high-temperature modes leads to a decrease in the sowing qualities of seeds due to overheating. When drying sunflower seeds in recirculation type dryers, it is very important to evenly distribute the seeds over the entire cross-section of the chamber, as well as to prevent the accumulation of oil dust in the heating chamber and to eliminate the ingress of sparks from the furnace into the heating chamber. One of the promising methods of drying bulk materials is the method of drying in a vibrating fluidized bed, which can be achieved on vibrating dryers of various types. A number of experiments were conducted to substantiate the technological and technical proposals for the process of drying sunflower seeds and to determine the operating parameters of the dryer. Based on the results, graphs were constructed. The results of the research proved the expediency and necessity of using vibrating dryers during drying of sunflower seeds. The best parameters of the infrared radiation drying process with a selected wavelength of 1,5-3,0 μm , a sunflower seed layer height of 15 mm, and a heat flow density of IR radiation were found. 5 kW/m 2 , the height of the placement of the IR generator blocks relative to the layer of the irradiated product is 25 mm, while the drying time will be 11 minutes.

Mathematical Modeling of Thermal-hydraulic Processes in Dry Type Spent Nuclear Fuel Storages

Mathematical Modeling of Thermal-hydraulic Processes in Dry Type Spent Nuclear Fuel Storages

STUDI KASUS: Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) TIPE EFUSIF PADA KUCING TINA

Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is a viral infection with a high mortality rate in cats. This diseaseis caused by a coronavirus (FCoV). FIP has two types namely wet type (effusive) and dry type (non-effusive). Clinical symptoms in this case include anorexia, lethargy, jaundice, fever, and significant weightloss. The wet type causes about 70-80% of all cases of this disease and is more malignant than the dry type.The wet type is characterized by an accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, chest cavity, or both.FIP case in the cat Tina, weight 2.99 kg, body temperature 40.30°c, normal CRT, female sex, 11 monthsold with colico hair color. Supporting diagnoses are generally needed to confirm the diagnosis of FIPbecause this disease does not have specific symptoms. Some supporting diagnostic tools for Bela cats arerapid FIP antibody tests. The differential diagnosis of this case was ascites due to FIP compared to ascitesdue to congestive heart failure or hypoproteinemia (kidney and liver disease), pregnancy, and trauma.Treatment in this case is furosemide, tolfedin, ornipural, channa blister, cefotaxime, samilyn andExterminate FIP.

EFFECT OF STORAGE CONDITIONS ON MDA LEVELS OF DIFFERENT CLASS AND TYPE OF DRY DOG FOOD

"The aim of this study was the determination of malondialdehyde (MDA) changes of 20 dry types of premium (P) and economic class (E) commercial dog foods at different stocking temperatures (4 0C, 20 0C, 35 0C) and different stocking times (3, 6, and 12months). At the time of purchase, MDA concentrations of premium dry type foods were lower than those of economic class. The MDA concentrations of dog food increased with the progress of stocking times at increasing temperatures. In the 10th month of stocking, the MDA levels was significantly higher, up to 6 times at a temperature of 35 and a storage time of 10 months compared to the concentration at the time of purchase. Malondialdehyde, often known as MDA, is the result of the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in food during cooking and storage. Cellular proteins can react with MDA from the body and from ingested sources and the reaction products are considered harmful."

Seaweed Marketing Efficiency in Takalar Regency

Punaga Village is one of the seaweed industrial areas in South Sulawesi whose seaweed development is spread throughout the sub-districts. With total production according to the KKP in 2020, Indonesian seaweed production is 11.55 million tons and one of the largest contributors is in Takalar Regency. This encourages an increase in the income of seaweed farmers. The purpose of this study was to analyze the profits of cultivators and the marketing of seaweed. This research was conducted from June to July 2021. The method used was quantitative and qualitative descriptive using a questionnaire. The sampling method used is the cluster sampling method with a total sample of 25 people consisting of 23 cultivators and 2 traders. Analysis of the data used is profit analysis and marketing analysis. The results showed that the profit for wet type seaweed cultivators was Rp. 875,334. per month and dry type of seaweed Rp. 26,271,048 per month with revenue for wet type seaweed Rp. 3,206,786 per month and the dry type is Rp. 28,602,500 per month, the total cost is Rp. 2,331,452 per month. The highest marketing margin is found in the marketing agency of collectors with the type of wet grass of Rp. 1,000/Kg and dry type Rp. 6,000/Kg. There are 2 marketing channels in the seaweed marketing chain in Punaga Village. The most efficient marketing institutions are traders with a value of 0.23% for wet seaweed and 0.01% for dry seaweed.

Age-Related Macular Degeneration in Patients with Androgenetic Alopecia: Could the Monocyte/HDL Ratio Be the Link?

Both Androgenetic alopecia (AGA) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) shared the microinflammatory milieu and increased oxidative stress as important criteria in their pathogenesis. The monocyte/high density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio (MHR) seems to be an easy-to-calculate prognostic marker of microinflammation. To assess MHR in patients with AGA and its correlation to AMD in these patients, if any. Forty patients with AGA aged 40 years or more of both sexes and 40 control subjects participated in this case-control study. General, dermatological, and ophthalmologic examination, MHR evaluation and optical coherence tomography (OCT) were performed. The mean MHR was significantly higher in AGA patients (6.98 ± 2.21) than in controls (3.82 ± 0.68) (P < 0.001). AMD was significantly higher in patients than controls (P < 0.001). Eighty percent of AGA patients were diagnosed with AMD versus 20% of control subjects. The presence of AMD in AGA was significantly related to the degree of severity of AGA in male patients (P = 0.02). The MHR was significantly higher in AGA patients found to have AMD (9.37 ± 1.1 and 7.01 ± 1.42 in the wet and dry type respectively) than those without AMD (P < 0.001). AMD may develop more frequently in those with AGA. The MHR seems to be a missing link between both conditions, and could be utilized as a potential biomarker for predicting AMD in AGA patients.

Electrolysis Process of Acid Acetic and Sugar Water Solution as an Alternative Fuel

One alternative energy that can be developed is hydrogen. To obtain hydrogen gas by decomposing water compounds (H2O) into hydrogen hydrogen oxygen gas (HHO) through electrolysis. The solution used in this electrolysis process uses sodium chloride (NaCl) with electric current energy. In this research, a dry cell type HHO generator was used, the electrode used was a type 304 stainless steel plate with a catalyst percentage (NaCl) of 8%, 10%, 12%, 14% and 16%. The aim of this research is to determine the hydrogen content in a solution of vinegar and sugar water which can be used as an alternative fuel. This research produced the highest hydrogen volume at a percentage of 16% of 367 mL at the highest temperature of 547 C, the lowest 317 C and the lowest hydrogen volume of 198 mL. The highest flame height is 5.72 cm and flame width is 2.98 cm and the highest flame brightness level (Red Green Blue) is 16 RGB and the lowest brightness level is 2 RGB.

Improvements of combustion, emissions and exergy in petrol engine using oxyhydrogen from different configurations

Water electrolysis was used to create oxyhydrogen (HHO) in dry and wet electrolyzers at rates of 0.4 and 0.6 lpm, respectively. Engine performance, exergy, combustion, and emissions of petrol engine operating in dual fuel mode on gasoline and HHO were studied. The addition of hydroxy gas from dry and wet units increased thermal efficiency relative to petrol by 4% and 7.5%, respectively. The improvements in air-fuel ratios for wet and dry types were 15 and 7%, respectively, while the improvements in volumetric efficiency were 13 and 5.5%. For dry and wet cells about petrol fuel, the decreases in CO (13, 35%), CO2 (23, 37%), and HC concentrations (11, 23%) were displayed. By using HHO, dry and wet designs experienced improvements in cylinder pressure and heat release rate. When compared to gasoline fuel at full load, the fuel and exhaust exergy of dry and wet cells are respectively 33.4 and 36% lower and 9% and 13% lower. Exergetic efficiency of HHO gas from dry and wet cells were enhanced by 50 and 55%, respectively, regarding petrol. It is advised to use oxyhydrogen from dry electrolyzer in SI engine to improve performance and reduce emissions through better combustion and exergy.