Types Of Communication Strategies Research Articles

Teaching Communication Strategies in an EFL Class of Tertiary Level

This article deals with the effects of teaching communication strategies (CSs) on the types of communication strategies used by the students and level of speech comprehensibility. This research is largely experimental involving 23 students. The research isntruments include vocabulary test to identify students’ unknown objects, treatment, and observation. Descriptive qualitative analysis was used to analyze the linguistic features, and repeated measure t-test was used to analyze the level of speech comprehensibility. The results reveal that (1) in terms of frequency, there are increases in 4 types CSs, decreases in 7 types of CSs, and a consistancy in one type of CS, (2) there is a significant increase in the level of speech comprehensibility. Therefore, it can be concluded that teaching communication strategies prommote students’ communication skills.

Integrating computer-mediated communication strategy instruction

Communication strategies (CSs) play important roles in resolving problematic second language interaction and facilitating language learning. While studies in face-to-face contexts demonstrate the benefits of communication strategy instruction (CSI), there have been few attempts to integrate computer-mediated communication and CSI. The study reported in this article examined the relationship between computer-mediated CSI and CS use and types. It also investigated student perceptions of this form of instruction. Two groups of students enrolled in the same undergraduate course at a university in South Korea participated in the study. Over the course of one semester, the Strategy Group (n = 11) participated in CSI, whereas the Comparison Group (n = 14) did not. Throughout the semester, students in both groups completed nine chatting tasks, and transcripts from these sessions were analyzed to identify the frequency and types of CSs employed. In addition to questionnaire data showing that the Strategy Group perceived CSI favorably, the results show that the Strategy Group used significantly more CSs than the Comparison Group, and that the two groups differed in regards to specific strategies they employed. This study offers recommendations for future research investigating CS use and the instructional components of CSI.

Communication Strategies for Developing the Learner's Autonomy

The main aim of any student who learns a foreign language is ultimately to be able to communicate with people speaking that language. The paper presents some of the difficulties the learners encounter in a foreign language. The teacher has to use different types of communication strategies and encourage the sense of responsibility on the part of the learners who understand the strategies they employ in acquiring the language skills. The learners need adequate opportunities to put the new language into practice in a free context, and to take more risks in dealing with it. They should become active, confident, proficient and autonomous communicators

Impact of corporate governance framework on the organizational performance

This particular study has been conducted to find relationships between corporate governance and performance of banks in Pakistan. Corporate governance is the formal mechanism and the system by which management is held accountable to shareholders for its practices and policies. The theoretical stance of study reveals that effective corporate governance system result in high performance of organizations which also prohibits the fraudulent activities followed in the organizations. The independent variables of study include director’s remuneration, communication strategies, code of conduct and governance mechanism. 10 branches of five major banks of Pakistan have been selected in this study. Response rate of 89% has been achieved in survey of 100 management respondents of selected banks. Through statistical analysis, it has been found that performance of banks also depends on the type of communication strategies, executive remuneration and Governance Mechanism. On the other hand, code of conduct does not influence on banks’ performance. The regulatory authorities need to develop strong and effective corporate governance mechanisms and policies for the entire sector because corporate governance directly influences organizational performance.

The importance of the eyes: communication skills in infants of blind parents

The effects of selectively different experience of eye contact and gaze behaviour on the early development of five sighted infants of blind parents were investigated. Infants were assessed longitudinally at 6–10, 12–15 and 24–47 months. Face scanning and gaze following were assessed using eye tracking. In addition, established measures of autistic-like behaviours and standardized tests of cognitive, motor and linguistic development, as well as observations of naturalistic parent–child interaction were collected. These data were compared with those obtained from a larger group of sighted infants of sighted parents. Infants with blind parents did not show an overall decrease in eye contact or gaze following when they observed sighted adults on video or in live interactions, nor did they show any autistic-like behaviours. However, they directed their own eye gaze somewhat less frequently towards their blind mothers and also showed improved performance in visual memory and attention at younger ages. Being reared with significantly reduced experience of eye contact and gaze behaviour does not preclude sighted infants from developing typical gaze processing and other social-communication skills. Indeed, the need to switch between different types of communication strategy may actually enhance other skills during development.

The Use of Games to Foster Fluency among ESL Learners

This study focused on five particular Communication Strategies (CSs) namely: Paraphrase, approximation, hesitation, reduction, borrowed words and invented, or anglicised. The aim was to investigate the link between the use of approvable and positive CS-types and the impact of ESL students’ beliefs about CSs in a game-activity. It aims to promote students fluency based on positive CSs. The study used a series of videoed and transcribed task-observations based on ‘Spot the Differences’ information-gap activities. In addition, the views and beliefs of 6 teachers and 6 students were sampled using structured interviews. The results interestingly revealed that hesitation was one of the most approved and positive strategies. The teacher interviews revealed that the more experienced teachers focused attention on fluency and helping student to 'keep going', and using all types of CSs while less experienced tutors focused attention on both fluency and vocabulary learning in communication tasks. Less experienced teachers also uttered that hesitation and reduction strategies should not to be encouraged and it is better that teacher tell the word if student needs it or paraphrase them. The observation also highlighted that there is a relation between the teacher's inner beliefs and the student's fluency level. Data from the videoed observations revealed that body language was an important element in communicating meaning. The results also revealed what strategies these teachers encourage students to use in a communication activity. That are mostly avoided because of their misconception about a communication activity. Analysis of CSs also showed the link between teacher and students beliefs about approvable CSs and their level of achieved fluency.

Facebook: examining the information presented and its impact on stakeholders

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the content of for‐profit organizations' Facebook pages and how the communication strategy employed impacts stakeholders' perceptions of the organization‐public relationship, corporate social responsibility, attitudes, and purchase intent.Design/methodology/approachFor Study 1, a content analysis examined the types of information on for‐profit organizations' Facebook pages. Facebook pages were coded for organizational disclosure and information dissemination, corporate social responsibility information, and interactivity. Pages were also coded for using a corporate ability, corporate social responsibility, or hybrid communication strategy. Three organizations were then selected based on the content analysis results to serve as exemplars in the two‐phase experiment. Participants filled out measures of initial attitudes, perceptions of the organization‐public relationship, corporate social responsibility, and purchase intent. A week later, participants interacted with the organizations' Facebook pages and then answered additional scale measures.FindingsStudy 1 found for‐profit organizations discuss program/services, achievements, and awards on their Facebook pages. The main communication strategy employed on Facebook is corporate ability. Study 2 results indicate interacting with Facebook pages bolsters stakeholders' perceptions of the organization‐public relationship, corporate social responsibility, and purchase intent. The organization employing a corporate social responsibility communication strategy had the most success bolstering these variables.Research limitations/implicationsSeveral of the organizations did not have Facebook pages to code for the content analysis. Some organizations' pages were not coded because the page was just starting and there was no information available. The content analysis included a small sample size (n=114) which impacted the experiment. It limited the number of organizations that could be employed in the experimental conditions.Practical implicationsWhen posting information on Facebook, organizations should employ the corporate social responsibility communication strategy. However, regardless of the strategy employed, interacting with Facebook information can bolster stakeholders' perceptions of organizational‐public relationships, corporate social responsibility, attitudes, and purchase intent.Originality/valueThe paper adds to the experimental literature. There is very limited experimental research examining the impact of Facebook on stakeholders. It provides practitioners with some guidance on the types of communication strategy they should employ when posting on Facebook.

Communication Strategies Used by Jordanian EFL Learners

Due to long academic experience, it was noticed when some EFL learners encounter a problem in verbal communication in TL, they tend to employ different techniques. They may abandon the message, alter the meaning they intend to convey, omit some items of information, make their ideas simpler and less precise, or say something which is slightly different from the intended meaning. When a learner is able to anticipate such a communication problem, he may overcome it by avoiding communication or modifying what he intends to say. If the problem arises while the learner is already engaged in speaking, he may try to find an alternative way of getting the meaning across. The researcher witnessed various types of communication strategies used by learners in their interaction and performing tasks via English. This actual observation motivated the researcher to investigate the communication strategies (CSs) employed by EFL learners in communicating with others, e.g. their classmates and instructors. This observation is also in line with what other researchers (e.g., Littlewood, 1984; Poulisse, 1987) have noticed that EFL learners who venture to put their knowledge into practice often run into communication problems due to deficiencies in their linguistic repertoire. The present study deals with CSs and the proficiency level of 66 Jordanian students at Zarka University. Key words: Jordanian learners; Communication strategies; Strategic competence

Can good news be bad? The role of brand communication strategy and brand commitment in the announcement of product improvements

Although product improvements are usually good news, this research reveals that brands can be affected negatively depending on the level of brand commitment and on the type of communication strategy chosen by the brand. More specifically, this research examines how high-commitment consumers react to product improvements, and how these consumers respond to a communication strategy in which a brand admits that the new product version improves upon a previous inferior product (herein referred to as ‘honesty strategy’). Results of an online study reveal that product improvement is perceived more negatively by high- (compared to low-) commitment consumers, and that these consumers react more negatively and attribute manipulative intent when the brand uses an honesty strategy. This research shows that brands need to be cautious in communicating product improvements to consumers, particularly to its most committed ones. An admission that a product improvement significantly enhances the quality of a previous (inferior) product may backfire with committed consumers.

Condom use: exploring verbal and non-verbal communication strategies among Latino and African American men and women

A growing body of literature provides evidence of a link between communication with sexual partners and safer sexual practices, including condom use. More research is needed that explores the dynamics of condom communication including gender differences in initiation, and types of communication strategies. The overall objective of this study was to explore condom use and the dynamics surrounding condom communication in two distinct community-based samples of African American and Latino heterosexual couples at increased risk for HIV. Based on 122 in-depth interviews, 80% of women and 74% of men reported ever using a condom with their primary partner. Of those who reported ever using a condom with their current partner, the majority indicated that condom use was initiated jointly by men and women. In addition, about one-third of the participants reported that the female partner took the lead and let her male partner know she wanted to use a condom. A sixth of the sample reported that men initiated use. Although over half of the respondents used bilateral verbal strategies (reminding, asking and persuading) to initiate condom use, one-fourth used unilateral verbal strategies (commanding and threatening to withhold sex). A smaller number reported using non-verbal strategies involving condoms themselves (e.g. putting a condom on or getting condoms). The results suggest that interventions designed to improve condom use may need to include both members of a sexual dyad and focus on improving verbal and non-verbal communication skills of individuals and couples.

A Study of English Communication Strategies of Thai University Students

Thai students appear to have problems communicating in English as a second language, especially students of low ability. This may be caused not only by the lack of basic grammar and vocabulary but also by deficiency in the use of appropriate communication strategies. Low-ability students experience difficulties in selecting the most appropriate strategies for many communicative contexts. This study aims to obtain empirical data on the types of communication strategies that low-ability students select which may affect their oral communication abilities. Three hundred Thai university students participated in the initial part of this study, 100 of whom were randomly selected to complete the Strategies Used in Speaking Task Inventory, which was developed to elicit responses related to their use of communication strategies. In addition, content analysis was employed to confirm the quantitative analysis. It was found that low-ability students tended to employ risk-avoidance techniques, especially time-gaining strategies, and needed assistance in developing risk-taking techniques such as social-affective, fluency-oriented, help-seeking, and circumlocution strategies.

Communication Strategies and Foreign Language Speech Production

This study investigated the relationship between communication strategies use and foreign language (L2) oral production. Thirty participants were assigned to a pre-intermediate, an intermediate or an advanced group. Their oral fluency was assessed by means of speech rate (Lennon, 1990). L2 speech production was elicited by means of three narrative tasks in three different sessions. Data analysis revealed that the relationship between communication strategies use and L2 oral fluency, as measured by speech rate, is not statistically significant in any of the three proficiency levels. The analysis also revealed that speech rate, alone, is not enough to examine the relationship between communication strategies use and L2 speech production. To explain the few instances of significant statistical correlations between speech rate and types of communication strategies, it is suggested that due to the multitude of factors affecting L2 oral fluency, other aspects of speech production need to be taken into consideration. In addition, the nature of tasks and their cognitive demands might have contributed to learners' apparently limited oral improvement across sessions.

Public Participation in Flood Control Areas

Global warming causes heavy rainfall and rising sea levels. These climate effects prove to be a strong motivation for looking differently at issues of water management and safety in estuaries. For decades the only answer to hazardous situations (e.g. flooding by increased river discharges or by incoming storm water) was to strengthen levees and dams. This led to damage in the natural water system, a declining biodiversity and destruction of the unique estuary and river landscapes. Nowadays different approaches are more frequently implemented, creating more space for the rivers as a guiding principle. Instead of stemming and/or speeding discharge, water is contained in estuaries and/or catchment areas. This alternative approach to water management contributes to a more sustainable development of the estuary, protecting the natural and ecological values. However estuaries are often densely populated areas, accommodating several (conflicting) spatial and economic functions, such as residential areas, ports and harbors, industrial zones, farming and recreational facilities. Creating more space for water management projects (i.e. retention areas, flood planes and wash lands) leaves less space available for other spatial developments. As a consequence, stakeholders will be affected in their interests; e.g. cities cannot grow unrestrained and farming will have to be downsized. Concepts such as ‘multiple land use' and ‘societal cost—benefit evaluation' come to mind to characterize the challenge for transforming the designated areas into more sustainable, multi-functional retention basins. Governmental agencies are often acting as project executives in these transformations. They are faced with various stakeholders who are all trying to defend or strengthen their specific interests. A vital question is how to communicate with these stakeholders in the different stages of the transformation process. What communication strategy applies to what situation ? And equally important, if a communication strategy is developed, how should it be implemented ? What will the message be, how are the target groups identified and addresses, which mediums should be applied ? And, more important, what kind of public participation is required to enable cooperation and avoid opposition to the transformation process ? In general four basic communication strategies can be identified: co-knowing, co-thinking, co-working and co-deciding. Each of these strategies apply to different situations, following the cultural and historic context in the area, the established relationship between the ‘governor and the governed', and of course, the preferred style of governance. In a research assignment involving four governmental agencies in The Netherlands, the UK and Belgium—the Interreg IIIB-project Flood control Management in Estuaries/FRaME1—we have evaluated the applied communication strategies in various flood control areas in the EU. For this assignment, an evaluative framework was developed. The evaluation shows the suitability of the applied communication strategy in each of the reviewed areas. Moreover, lessons are drawn on the question of which type of communication strategy is most suitable in what situation. Also, the review gives examples of good practice and inspiration for ‘sustainable' communication efforts in future transformation processes.

THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES USED BY SPEAKING CLASS STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION LEVELS IN ENGLISH DEPARTMENT OF PETRA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, SURABAYA

This article reports on a study that aims to find out the types of Communication Strategies used and mostly used by students with high and low levels of Communication Apprehension and whether students with high level of Communication Apprehension used more numbers of Communication Strategies. The subjects in a created classroom were asked to retell a pictorial story and a pictorial instruction. The results showed that students with high Communication Apprehension level used more numbers of Communication Strategies.

THE EFFECT OF THE CONTEXT OF LEARNING ON THE USE OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES BY LEARNERS OF SPANISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

This study investigates the effect of the context of learning—“at home” (AH) classroom versus study abroad (SA)—on the number and types of communication strategies (CSs) used by learners of Spanish as a second language. Oral data from 46 learners—20 AH and 26 SA—were analyzed before and after the treatment period, to discern the effect of various factors on the learners' levels and choice of CS usage: type of CS category (L1 or L2 based, direct or interactional, and problem-orientedness [resource deficit, other performance, and self-performance]) and measures of language use. Posttest results showed a significant effect for context for CS categories and language use: Students in the SA context consistently used fewer CSs than their classroom counterparts, and their CS use correlated negatively with higher use of Spanish outside the classroom and with the host family. It is posited that the pragmatic exigencies of the AH and SA contexts may account for these findings.This research would not have been possible without the support of the Council on International Educational Exchange (CIEE), which sponsored this team project, headed by Barbara F. Freed and Norman Segalowitz, to study the effects of the SA experience on L2 learners. I am very grateful to the members of the CIEE project team: Joe Collentine, Barbara Freed, Norman Segalowitz, and Manuel Díaz-Campos, for their insightful commentary on earlier versions of this work. Special appreciation also goes to Nicole Lazar for her expert assistance with the methodology and data analysis sections of this paper. My sincere appreciation also goes to Julie Sykes, Rosalind Freeman, and Sharma Martineau, graduate students in Spanish SLA and applied linguistics at Arizona State University, for their assistance with the partial transcription and the coding of the CS data.

Language learning

Language learning

The communicative effectiveness of different types of communication strategy

This study examines compensation strategies (techniques for dealing with knowledge gaps between learner and interlocutor), relates them to synoptic and ectenic learning (Ehrman and Leaver, 2002, 2003), and suggests reasons for the fact that ectenic learners, who need conscious control of what they are learning, seemed to communicate meanings of words to judges better than the synoptics, who feel freer to rely on their intuition and pre-conscious processing, but also tend to use more novel and therefore less readily comprehensible figures of speech. The subjects were French learners of English.

An Analysis of the Communication Tactics Used by Hearing-Impaired Adults

The aim of this study was to establish whether and to what degree certain types of communication strategies (hearing tactics) used by hearing-impaired adults could be shown to co-occur, and to find out which strategies were more likely to be used in which type of communicative situations. A consecutive series of 100 patients attending an audiological rehabilitation clinic was given a questionnaire asking how often they used each of five different hearing tactics in 11 different situations. 'Avoidance' and 'request for repetition' were the tactics used most commonly. 'Pretending to hear/understand' and 'positioning self to improve hearing' were used less frequently, with 'interruption' the least commonly used. There was some association between tactics and situations but no clear picture emerged. In a reassessment of our methodology and results, we suggest that the future research of communication strategies would benefit from a sociolinguistic approach based on the qualitative analysis of naturally occurring discourse (conversation) of hard-of-hearing people, focusing on the use of different strategies in relation to communicators' goals in interaction.

Communication and Interaction Patterns in French Immersion Classrooms: Implications for Consultation

This observation study in French immersion elementary programs was carried out in six class rooms over an eight-week period. An observation grid was developed for use in order to determine the predominant language and the type of communication strategies used by teachers and students. The results indicated that: (a) communication in French was maximized in the whole-class classroom grouping; (b) the greatest variely of communication in both French and English occurred in student-to-student interactions; (c) the greatest number of student-initiated interactions occurred in the small-group classroom grouping; (d) student-initinted interactions predominated in discussing, social, and discipline/acting out communications; (e) French was the predominant language used for asking, telling, and discipline/acting out communications, while English was the predominant language used for social communications and both languages were used for discussing communications; (f) French was the predominant language in all subject areas. Study findings are discussed in terms of their implications for school psychology consultation practices that involve school psychologists and teachers.

Socialization of graduate teaching assistants: a case study in an American university

Although graduate teaching assistants [GTAS] play an important role on most American university campuses, and despite the fact that the GTA experience is often the only formal professional training that faculty receive, little is known about how GTAS are prepared for their role. One of the most enigmatic processes related to GTA role development is that of socialization. This paper reports the results of a study examining the types of messages that new GTAS receive about their role and the manner in which particular types of communication strategies are used to cope with inconsistencies and conflicts among those messages. It was found that GTAS are exposed to thematic messages about what it means to be a GTA, that they experienced difficulties when attempting to use those messages to guide behavior and decision‐making, and that information‐seeking strategies were used in response to the specific types of problems that were experienced.