Type G1 Research Articles

Rotavirus gastroenteritis among children less than 5 years of age in private outpatient setting in urban India

Burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis (RVGE) in outpatient setting in India is not fully understood. A prospective study was undertaken to describe RVGE among Indian children less than 5 years of age presenting in outpatient departments with acute gastroenteritis (AGE). This study was conducted at 11 outpatient departments (OPDs) of private pediatric clinics in urban areas of India. A total of 605 eligible children were enrolled at OPDs. Stool samples of the subjects were collected and tested for presence of rotavirus antigen by enzyme immune assay (EIA) and were typed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Physician examined the children and documented the disease particulars. In addition, parents/guardians were interviewed for AGE related symptoms, health care utilization and cost incurred due to AGE, and parental stress associated with AGE. After OPD, parents/guardians completed diary cards and questionnaires to capture the information for 14 days following the enrollment.Complete data for analysis including stool sample results was available from 552 subjects. 23% (127/552; [CI 19.5, 26.5]) of stool samples were rotavirus (RV) positive. RT-PCR was done for 85.8% (109/127) of RV positive samples. G1, G2, G9, and G12 types were identified in 34.9% (38/109), 37.6% (41/109), 8.3% (9/109), and 6.4% (7/109) stool samples, respectively. P[4] and P[8] were identified in 36.7% (40/109) stool samples each, followed by P[6] identified in 15.6% (17/109) stool samples.At the time of enrollment, all three symptoms (vomiting, diarrhea, and fever) were observed concurrently in higher proportion of RV positive subjects compared to RV negative subjects (60.6% [77/127] vs. 42.8% [182/425], p=0.0004). Healthcare resource utilization, costs incurred due to disease, and parental stress were higher for RV positive subjects compared to RV negative subjects.In conclusion, RVGE was found to be a definite burden in AGE cases attending pediatric outpatient clinics in urban areas and it was associated with substantial economic and psychological burden. Introduction of rotavirus vaccine in India may help in reducing this disease burden.

Monopolar versus bipolar device: safety, feasibility, limits and perioperative complications in performing hysteroscopic myomectomy

The authors' aim is to compare surgical outcome of hysteroscopic G1 and G2 submucous myomectomy using bipolar resectoscope to those performed by monopolar device. a multicenter-observational-case-control study was conducted on premenopausal women affected by menorrhagia, pelvic pain or infertility because of submucous uterine myoma. The authors considered eligible: single G1 or G2 submucous uterine myoma, at least 0.5 cm ultrasound 'myometrial-free-margin' and two months GnRH pre-surgical treatment (myoma > three cm). Goup A patients were treated b y bipolar resectoscope and Group B by monopolar resectoscope. Primary endpoint was to compare the groups in term of complete or incomplete myomas resection ("second-step-procedure" rate). Secondary endpoint was to compare two treatments in term of surgical time and intraoperative complications rate. Group A (60 patients) and Group B (216 patients) were homogeneous for general features and myomas location but they differed for G2 type prevalence (73.3% vs 50.5%), mean myomas diameter (33.17 +/- 11.93 vs 29.45 +/- 9.63), and surgical time (29.43 +/- 12.6 vs 23.2 +/- 8.2 minutes). In Group A patients both G1 and G2 myomas were completely removed in single step without intraoperative/postoperative complications; in Group B surgical outcomes of G1 myomas were similar to those of Group A, while G2 myomas required procedure termination in 12% of cases because of light electrolyte disturbance (22 cases) and severe iponatremia in four cases. All intraoperative complications occurred when procedure time exceeded 30 minutes and when myomas diameter was greater than 37.5 millimeters. in the era ofmini-invasive surgery, hysteroscopic approach by bipolar device should be considered as a useful, safe, and large scale feasible procedure for submucosal myoma treatment, particularly when G2.

아파트 거주 주부의 이웃의식 유형에 따른 관리참여행태에 관한 연구

Neighborhood relations and restoring a sense of community has recently become an increasingly important aspect within the urban residential culture in Korea. This study aims to identify the key perceptions of typical Korean living habits in apartment complexes and how such observations reflect on apartment management activities as well as housing awareness. The following is the summary of this study. The first objective of this study classifies the neighborliness of Korean apartment residents into a series of factors including intimacy, empathy, identity and conflict. In particular, the factors of empathy and identity can be interpreted as aspects of Korean culture which are observed through consideration for others, a sense pride and community, etc. These factors were associated with positive influences on neighborliness. Second, the management participation level appeared to vary depending on the type of neighborliness. The G1 Type exhibits a positive attitude toward the neighborhood but shows passive community participation, while the G2 Type has a high level of empathy towards community life but experiences high stress with their neighbors and is critical against management participation. The G3 Type perceives the importance of neighbors but is indifferent to them, while the G4 Type shows an active attitude in terms of the aforementioned identity factor and actively participates in management activities. Therefore, community programs need to be developed in consideration to each kind of resident in order for such programs to succeed. The results of this investigative research are able to be utilized in the basic study of community programs and related management development focused on apartment residents in Korea.

Efficacy and safety of pentavalent rotavirus vaccine in Japan

Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe gastroenteritis in children under 5 y of age. Estimates of disease burden in Japan suggest that between 26,500 and 78,000 children in this age group need hospitalization each year, resulting in a direct medical cost of 10 to 24 billion Yen. Since being introduced in routine infant immunization schedules in the United States in 2006, the oral live pentavalent rotavirus vaccine RV5 (RotaTeq™) has contributed to dramatic reductions in the incidence of rotavirus gastroenteritis (RVGE) and in health care resource utilization. This was a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a 3-dose regimen of RV5 in healthy infants, age 6 to 12 weeks, at 32 sites across Japan. The results indicate that RV5 was significantly efficacious in preventing any severity [74.5% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 39.9%, 90.6%; p < 0.001)], moderate-to-severe [80.2% (95% CI: 47.4%, 94.1%)], and severe [100% (95% CI: 55.4%, 100%)] RVGE caused by viruses with serotypes contained in the vaccine. The observed cases of RVGE included rotavirus types G1 (n = 19), G3 (n = 9), G9 (n = 5) and one unspecified G serotype with P1A[8]. No G2 or G4 RVGE cases were observed, and this study was not powered to evaluate efficacy against individual serotypes. RV5 was generally safe and well tolerated in Japanese infants. These results are comparable to those observed in clinical studies conducted in other developed countries. Introduction of the vaccine in Japan may reduce disease burden and associated health care costs.

KW-sections for Vinbergʼs θ-groups of exceptional type

Let k be an algebraically closed field of characteristic not equal to 2 or 3, let G be a simple algebraic group of type F4, G2 or D4 and let θ be a semisimple automorphism of G of finite order. In this paper we consider the θ-group (in the sense of Vinberg) associated to these choices; we classify the positive rank automorphisms via Kac diagrams and we describe the little Weyl group in each case. As a result we show that all θ-groups in types G2, F4 and D4 have KW-sections, confirming a conjecture of Popov in these cases.

Sensitivity to pH and ability to modify ambient pH of the take‐all fungus Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici

pH is one of the major ambient factors affecting life history traits of soilborne phytopathogenic fungi. The diversity of phenotypic responses to pH changes has not been extensively explored within fungal populations. To investigate this question, the ability of 82 strains of a worldwide collection of the take‐all agent Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (Ggt) to grow in controlled pH conditions, reflecting their pH sensitivity, was measured. Of these 82 strains, 37 belonged to the G1 type and 45 to the G2 type, the two main genetic groups identified in Ggt populations. The experiments were conducted in Petri dishes on Fahraeus solid media buffered at pH 4·6, 6·0 or 7·0 with citrate–disodium phosphate solutions. The 82 strains exhibited a wide range of hyphal growth rates at the three pH levels. Ten statistically different pH profiles were described. The G2 strains grew significantly better than the G1 on the slightly acidic (pH 6·0) and the neutral (pH 7·0) buffered media. The ability of three strains to change ambient pH was also measured on unbuffered Fahraeus solid media initially adjusted to pH 5·6 or 8·0. All three strains were able to alkalinize the acidic medium. However, important variations between strains in the intensity, range and persistence of this alkalinization were measured. These results provide the first evidence of intraspecific variability in pH sensitivity within soilborne fungal species.

Tubulin Polymerization Promoting Protein 1 (Tppp1) Phosphorylation by Rho-associated Coiled-coil Kinase (Rock) and Cyclin-dependent Kinase 1 (Cdk1) Inhibits Microtubule Dynamics to Increase Cell Proliferation

Tubulin polymerization promoting protein 1 (Tppp1) regulates microtubule (MT) dynamics via promoting MT polymerization and inhibiting histone deacetylase 6 (Hdac6) activity to increase MT acetylation. Our results reveal that as a consequence, Tppp1 inhibits cell proliferation by delaying the G1/S-phase and the mitosis to G1-phase transitions. We show that phosphorylation of Tppp1 by Rho-associated coiled-coil kinase (Rock) prevents its Hdac6 inhibitory activity to enable cells to enter S-phase. Whereas, our analysis of the role of Tppp1 during mitosis revealed that inhibition of its MT polymerizing and Hdac6 regulatory activities were necessary for cells to re-enter the G1-phase. During this investigation, we also discovered that Tppp1 is a novel Cyclin B/Cdk1 (cyclin-dependent kinase) substrate and that Cdk phosphorylation of Tppp1 inhibits its MT polymerizing activity. Overall, our results show that dual Rock and Cdk phosphorylation of Tppp1 inhibits its regulation of the cell cycle to increase cell proliferation.

Cell cycle dependent changes in membrane stored curvature elastic energy: evidence from lipidomic studies

One of the most developed theories of phospholipid homeostasis is the intrinsic curvature hypothesis, which, in broad terms, postulates that cells regulate their lipid composition so as to keep constant the membrane stored curvature elastic energy. The implication of this hypothesis is that lipid composition is determined by a ratio control function consisting of the weighted sum of concentrations of type II lipids in the numerator and the weighted sum of concentrations of Type 0 lipids in the denominator. In previous work we used a data-driven approach, based on lipidomic data from asynchronous cell cultures, to determine a criterion that allows the different lipid species to be assigned to the set of type 0 or of type II lipids, and hence construct a ratio control function that serves as a proxy for the lipid contribution to total membrane stored curvature elastic energy in vivo. Here we apply the curvature elastic energy proxy to the analysis of lipid composition data from synchronous HeLa cells as they traverse the cell cycle. Our analysis suggests HeLa cells modify their membrane stored elastic energy through the cell cycle. In S-phase type 0 lipids are the most abundant, whilst in G2 type II lipids are most abundant. Changes in our proxy for membrane stored elastic energy correlate with membrane curvature dependent processes in the HeLa cell around division, providing some insights into the interplay between the individual lipid and protein contributions to membrane free energy.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor imaging with [Lys40(Ahx-HYNIC-99mTc/EDDA)NH2]-exendin-4 for the detection of insulinoma

PurposeThe objective of this article is to present a new method for the diagnosis of insulinoma with the use of [Lys40(Ahx-HYNIC-99mTc/EDDA)NH2]-exendin-4.MethodsStudies were performed in 11 patients with negative results of all available non-isotopic diagnostic methods (8 with symptoms of insulinoma, 2 with malignant insulinoma and 1 with nesidioblastosis). In all patients glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor imaging (whole-body and single photon emission computed tomography/CT examinations) after the injection of 740 MBq of the tracer was performed.ResultsBoth sensitivity and specificity of GLP-1 receptor imaging were assessed to be 100 % in patients with benign insulinoma. In all eight cases with suspicion of insulinoma a focal uptake in the pancreas was found. In six patients surgical excision of the tumour was performed (type G1 tumours were confirmed histopathologically). In one patient surgical treatment is planned. One patient was disqualified from surgery. In one case with malignant insulinoma pathological accumulation of the tracer was found only in the region of local recurrence. The GLP-1 study was negative in the other malignant insulinoma patient. In one case with suspicion of nesidioblastosis, a focal accumulation of the tracer was observed and histopathology revealed coexistence of insulinoma and nesidioblastosis.Conclusion[Lys40(Ahx-HYNIC-99mTc/EDDA)NH2]-exendin-4 seems to be a promising diagnostic tool in the localization of small insulinoma tumours, but requires verification in a larger series of patients.

Antibody response in vaccinated pregnant mares to recent G3BP[12] and G14P[12] equine rotaviruses

BackgroundBoth the G3P[12] and the G14P[12] type of equine group A rotavirus (RVA) have recently become predominant in many countries, including Japan. G3 types are classified further into G3A and G3B. The G3A viruses have been circulating in Europe, Australia, and Argentina, and the G3B viruses have been circulating in Japan. However, only an inactivated vaccine containing a single G3BP[12] strain is commercially available in Japan. To assess the efficacy of the current vaccine against recently circulating equine RVA strains, we examined antibody responses in pregnant mares to recent G3BP[12] and G14P[12] strains by virus neutralization test.FindingsAfter vaccination in five pregnant mares, the geometric mean serum titers of virus-neutralizing antibody to recent G3BP[12] strains increased 5.3- to 7.0-fold and were similar to that against homologous vaccine strain. Moreover, antibody titers to recent G14P[12] strains were also increased 3.0- to 3.5-fold.ConclusionsThese results suggest that inoculation of mares with the current vaccine should provide foals with virus-neutralizing antibodies against not only the G3BP[12] but also the G14P[12] RVA strain via the colostrum.

Glycan profiling of endometrial cancers using lectin microarray

Cell surface glycans change during the process of malignant transformation. To characterize and distinguish endometrial cancer and endometrium, we performed glycan profiling using an emerging modern technology, lectin microarray analysis. The three cell lines, two from endometrial cancers [well-differentiated type (G1) and poorly differentiated type (G3)] and one from normal endometrium, were successfully categorized into three independent groups by 45 lectins. Furthermore, in cancer cells, a clear difference between G1 and G3 type was observed for the glycans recognized with six lectins, Ulex europaeus agglutinin I (UEA-I), Sambucus sieboldiana agglutinin (SSA), Sambucus nigra agglutinin (SNA), Trichosanthes japonica agglutinin I (TJA-I), Amaranthus caudatus agglutinin (ACA), and Bauhinia purpurea lectin (BPL). The lectin microarray analysis using G3 type tissues demonstrated that stage I and stage III or IV were distinguished depending on signal pattern of three lectins, Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA), BPL, and ACA. In addition, the analysis of the glycans on the ovarian cancer cells showed that only anticancer drug-sensitive cell lines had almost no activities to specific three lectins. Glycan profiling by the lectin microarray may be used to assess the characteristics of tumors and potentially to predict the success of chemotherapy treatment.

Determination of aflatoxins in nuts of Tabriz confectionaries by ELISA and HPLC methods.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are a group of mycotoxins and secondary metabolites of various species of Aspergillus. There are various forms of aflatoxins including B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 types. Aflatoxins cause important health problems and have high potential effect on liver cancer. Therefore, numerous investigations have been conducted during last three decades. The aim of this work is to determine the contamination levels of nuts used by the confectionaries in Tabriz. A total of 142 samples including 35 almond , 26 walnut, 4 seeds of apricot, 6 sunflower seeds kernel, 6 sesame seed, 6 peanuts , 32 pistachio,13 hazelnuts and 14 cashews samples were collected from Tabriz confectionaries. The ELISA method was employed for the screening of total aflatoxins. In 13 cases (28.1% of pistachios, 5.1% of walnuts and 7.1% of cashews) contamination rate of higher than 15 ppb were observed. The HPLC method was applied for the confirmation of ELISA results. Aflatoxin B1 was the highest detected AFs. The overall results of the tested samples indicated that the rate of contamination of pistachios is higher than the other tested samples.

Etiology and epidemiology of viral diarrhea in children under the age of five hospitalized in Tianjin, China

Viral diarrhea is a great threat to children's health in developing countries. We conducted a prospective surveillance study of acute diarrhea of young children at Tianjin Children's Hospital from April 2008 to April 2009. Viral infections were detected in 356 of the total 766 collected stool specimens (46.48%). Rotavirus infections were the most common (27.94%; predominant type G1), followed by adenovirus infections (17.62%; predominant type Ad41), norovirus infections (5.87%; predominant type GII-4/2006 b), and astrovirus infections (3.15%; only HAstV-1). Children younger than 1 year old were the most susceptible population to viral infections (87.9%). Diarrhea, vomiting, and fever were the most frequent clinical symptoms among the infected patients. The viral infections had no age, sex, or regional differences. Most infection rates were higher in the autumn, winter, and spring. This study supported that the rotavirus vaccine should be included in the Expanded Programme on Immunization in China.

Frequency of group A rotavirus with mixed G and P genotypes in bovines: predominance of G3 genotype and its emergence in combination with G8/G10 types

The present study describes the genotypic distribution of rotaviruses (RVs) in an Indian bovine population with unexpectedly higher proportions of G3 alone or in combination of G8/G10. PCR-genotyping confirmed that 39.4% (13/33) of the prevalent RVs were the G3 type while 60.6% (20/33) were dual G3G10 or G3G8 types. P typing revealed that 93.9% (31/33) of the samples were P[11] while 6.1% (2/33) possessed a dual P[1]P[11] type. Sequence analysis of the VP7 gene from G3 strains viz. B-46, 0970, and BR-133 showed that these strains had sequence identities of 90.5% to 100% with other bovine G3 strains. The highest identity (98.9% to 100%) was observed with RUBV3 bovine G3 strains from eastern India. The G3 strains (B-46, 0970, and BR-133) showed 97.5% to 98.8% sequence homologies with the Indian equine RV strain Erv-80. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that G3 strains clustered with bovine RUBV3 and J-63, and equine Erv-80 G3. Overall, these results confirmed that the incidence of infection by RVs with the G3 genotype and mixed genotypes in the bovine population was higher than previously predicted. This finding reinforces the importance of constantly monitoring circulating viral strains with the G3 genotype in future surveillance studies.

Molecular characterization of two strains of porcine group C rotavirus

Group C rotaviruses are an important cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans and animals. Fecal samples were collected from a porcine herd in July, 2009. Group C rotavirus RNA was detected using RT-PCR for the VP6 gene. The identified strain was further characterized by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the partial VP4, and complete VP6 and VP7 gene sequences. The partial VP4 and complete VP6 gene sequences of the CUK-5 strain were most closely related to those of the CUK-6 strain of group C rotaviruses. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP7 gene of the 2 strains (CUK-5 and CUK-6) and reference strains of group G rotavirus by the neighbor-joining method also confirmed that CUK-5 and CUK-6 belonged to type G5 and G1 strains, respectively. This study provides useful data for the prediction of newly appearing variants of porcine group C rotaviruses in neighboring countries through comparisons with GCRVs and fundamental research for vaccine development.

Genotyping of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii acquired from environment and patients in intensive care units by REP-PCR

Objective To investigate the genotype of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter bauman- nii （CRAB） acquired from intensive care units （ICUs） environment in Shanghai hospitals and to evaluate the gene homology of CRAB isolated from patients and environment in ICUs in Shanghai hospital. Methods Sixty-one CRAB isolated from ICUs environment in Shanghai hospitals and 14 strains isolated from ICUs patients in S hospital were typed by REP-PCR based DiversiLab system. Results There were 7 types of the CRAB isolated from ICUs environment in Shanghai hospitals. Type G1 was the dominant type, accounting for 75.4% of all CRAB, mainly in 13 hospitals in Shanghai. The percentage of the 7 types CRAB strains were 75.4%, 13.1%, 3.3%, 1.6%, 1.6% ,3.3% and 1.6%, respectively. Except for 1 strain of type G6 isolated in D hospital, type G1 CRAB was identified in every hospital which was isolated CRAB. There were 25 strains isolated from patients and environment in S hospital ICUs, which were divided into 4 types. Type G1 was the dominant type mainly distributed in SICU and CICU, including 9 from patients and 8 from envi- ronment. The distribution diagram of environmental and patients＇ strains indicated that the patients in adja- cent bed isolated G1 CRAB in SICU and a patient in CICU and its surrounding environment both isolated G1 CRAB. Conclusion Type G1 is the dominant type in ICUs environment in Shanghai hospitals. There are inter-hospital transmission of CRAB in ICUs environment and highly homology of CRAB isolated from patients and environment in ICUs in Shanghai hospitals. Active surveillance of infection and colonization by CRAB, together with implementation of enhanced control strategies should be taken to eradicate CRAB in ICU environment. Key words: Acinetobacter baumannii ; Carbapenem-resistant ; ICU ; REP-PCR ; Genotype

Should grade 3 endometrioid endometrial carcinoma be considered a type 2 cancer—A clinical and pathological evaluation

ObjectiveEndometrial cancer is classified into: Type I estrogen-dependent endometrioid adenocarcinoma, with good prognosis and type 2 non-estrogen-dependent cancer with serous or clear cell histology and poor prognosis. Grade 3 endometrioid cancers (G3 EEC), share features of type 1 and type 2 cancer and have not been classified as either. This study compares immunohistochemistry and survival in G3 EEC and type 2 cancers. MethodsClinicopathological data compared with immunohistochemistry and survival in 156 consecutive patients with poor prognosis cancer—G3 EEC, uterine papillary serous (UPSC) and clear cell carcinoma (CC), sarcoma, carcinosarcoma and endometrial tumors of mixed histology. 131 (84%) datasets were complete, 25 tumors comprising sarcoma, carcinosarcoma or mixed histologies were excluded. Tissue microarray constructed and tested for estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), p53 and human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (Her-2). ResultsThere was no significant difference in the mean age for G3 EEC (n=68) and USPC+CC (n=38), (68.01 and 67.08 respectively, p=0.697) or stage at diagnosis (p=0.384). For ER, PR, p53 and Her-2, there was no significant difference in marker positivity between G3 EEC and UPSC+CC (p=0.612, 0.132, 0.16 and 0.132 respectively). With a mean follow-up time 148months Disease specific and recurrence-free survival between G3 EEC and USPC+CC was similar (p=0.842 and 0.863). ConclusionG3 EEC and UPSC+CC share similar clinical, immunohistochemistry and poor survival. G3 EEC is better characterised as type 2 cancer and should be treated with similar adjuvant therapy to UPSC/CC.

Molecular characterization and analysis of equine rotavirus circulating in Japan from 2003 to 2008

Using a total of 2018 fecal samples collected between 2003 and 2008 from foals with diarrhea, the molecular epidemiology of group A equine rotaviruses circulating in Japan was investigated by the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) typing and sequence analysis of the VP4 (P type) and VP7 (G type) genes. A total of 1149 samples showed positive reactions with RT-PCR, of which 462 samples (40.2%) were positive for G3 type, 502 samples (43.7%) were positive for G14 type, and 185 samples (16.1%) were positive for both G3 and G14 types. To examine P types, 59 G3 and 56 G14 positive samples were used. The majority of the samples (96.5%) were characterized as P[12] type. In a phylogenetic analysis, the VP4 gene of the P[12] type in Japan was found to be conserved for a long time. The VP7 sequences of the G3 type were found to be clustered in the same group as the HO-5 strain, which is a G3 strain that was isolated in 1982 in Japan. In contrast, the VP7 sequences of the G14 type, which were in circulation between 2003 and 2008, were clustered differently from those of the G14 type strains isolated in Japan in the late 1990s. These results suggest that the VP7 gene of the G3 type has been conserved over 25 years, while the VP7 gene of the G14 type circulating between 2003 and 2008 appears to have re-emerged in or invaded Japan around 2000.

Immune Responses to Rotavirus Infection and Vaccination and Associated Correlates of Protection

Group A rotavirus (RV) strains are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in infants and young children worldwide [1]. RV disease accounts for more than one-third of all diarrhea-related hospitalizations and 500,000–600,000 deaths per year [2–4]; most deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia [3, 4]. Direct medical and indirect annual costs associated with RV disease are estimated to be €400 million in Europe [5–7] and to exceed US$ 1 billion in the United States [8]. RV strains form a genus of the Reoviridae family and possess a genome of 11 segments of double-stranded (ds) RNA, encoding 6 structural viral proteins (VPs) and 6 nonstructural proteins (NSPs). The infectious particle (ie, virion) consists of 3 layers: the inner layer (core) contains the viral genome, the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, VP1), the capping enzyme (VP3), and the scaffolding protein (VP2); the core is surrounded by a middle layer (VP6), and the outer layer consists of VP7 and VP4 [9]. RV infects mature enterocytes in the small intestine. Viral replication leads to increased intracellular Ca2+ level (effected by NSP4), increased Cl- secretion, and shut-off of host cell protein synthesis (effected by NSP3), resulting in acute osmotic and secretory diarrhea (described in [9]). Various RV genes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AGE [10]. After RV infection, a viremic stage of, at present, unclear significance has been identified in humans and experimental animals [11–13]. The RV-encoded NSP1 blocks interferon (IFN) production by various pathways [14–17]. RV infection down-regulates the IFN- and pro-inflammatory cytokine–associated pathways in calves [18]. RV strains have a high genomic and antigenic diversity and are classified into at least 7 different groups (A–G), distinguished by different VP6. Most human RV infections are caused by group A RV strains, which are further subdivided into at least 2 subgroups (I, II), 23 G types (determined by VP7, a glycoprotein), and 31 P types (determined by VP4, a protease-sensitive protein) [9, 19–21]. RV strains with different G and P types cocirculate and change in geographical regions over time [22–25]. In temperate climate regions, most cocirculating RV strains are types G1–G4 and G9 (typically G1P1A[8], G2P1B[4], G3P1A[8], G4P1A[8], and G9P1A[8]), but other G types (G5, G8, G10, and G12), in combination with various P types, may be most prevalent in tropical areas [21, 23, 24]. Nonspecific (innate) and acquired virus-specific humoral and cellular immune responses are elicited by RV infection [26, 27] or RV vaccination [28–33]. Although currently licensed vaccines are highly efficacious in protecting children from severe RV AGE, the molecular mechanisms of protection are not fully understood. This article considers the immune responses to natural RV infection and RV vaccination in both experimental animals and humans as potential correlates of protection.

Composition and temperature of komatiite melts from Gorgona Island, Colombia, constrained from olivine-hosted melt inclusions

Despite significant efforts in studying komatiites, their primary melt compositions and volatile abundances remain largely unknown because of significant alteration. Late Cretaceous komatiites of Gorgona Island, Colombia, are unambiguous samples of high-Mg melts derived from depleted mantle peridotite and are much fresher than most of their Archean counterparts. This work presents major, trace, and volatile element data for homogenized melt inclusions in olivine (forsterite, Fo89.0–91.5) from the cumulate and upper sections of lava flows representing typical Gorgona Island komatiite (type G1). Major elements and lithophile trace elements of melt inclusions belong to a single fractionation series, which extends to the whole-rock komatiite compositions by addition of olivine. Melt inclusions are significantly enriched in volatile elements relative to elements of similar incompatibility (e.g., Cl/K 0.6–1.5; B/La 1.1–2.9; H2O/Ce 600–4000). The melt inclusions have a primary melt composition of ∼17 wt% MgO with a calculated anhydrous liquidus temperature of ∼1390 °C. However, given the presence of 0.2–1.0 wt% H2O, the initial crystallization temperature could be as low as 1330–1340 °C, but still higher than the temperature of common mid-ocean ridge magmas. The magmatic origin of volatiles in the komatiite melt has significant implications for composition and melting of the mantle source.