Types Of Heating Systems Research Articles

Breaking the (Un)Sound Barrier: Filaggrin Is a Major Gene for Atopic Dermatitis

We have recently shown that loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene, carried by about 10% of people of European ethnicity, cause ichthyosis vulgaris and are strong predisposing factors for atopic dermatitis and asthma secondary to atopic dermatitis. These results demonstrate a prominent role for the epidermal barrier in atopic disease and have important implications for the study of complex traits.

Electricity dependency and CO 2 emissions from heating in the Swedish building sector—Current trends in conflict with governmental policy?

Coal-condensing power is marginal production in the deregulated Nordic power market and an increase in electricity consumption will therefore result in increased CO 2 emissions. One goal of the Swedish energy policy is to reduce the amount of electricity used for heating in the building sector. This paper investigates the potential for reduction in electricity dependency and CO 2 emissions from heating, taking the energy infrastructure into account, here defined as the capital stock of the buildings and heating systems together with geographical variations in heat intensity. In order to include the energy infrastructure in the analysis the study is made on a regional level (Southern Sweden) applying a comprehensive database describing the energy infrastructure of the region. The paper compares two scenarios for converting the heating systems of the region: one employing energy savings and with the aim to phase out the oil and most of the electricity used for heating purposes and a second which illustrates the effect if the current trend in the heating market continues. Both scenarios apply commercially available technologies only. From the second scenario it is seen that the current trend—contrary to the aim of the Swedish Governmental policy—shows an increase in electricity dependency for heating, mainly due to a large diffusion of heat pumps, but also due to installations of electrical floor heating and electricity heating systems installed in newly constructed one- and two-dwelling buildings. However, the options proposed in first scenario show that it is possible to reach significant reductions in the electricity dependency due to heating and in corresponding CO 2 emissions. An analysis of the age structure of the heating systems shows that the transformation of the heating system is not completed until the year 2025, if new investments for replacement of heating systems are made only provided they have reached their economical life time, and only applying heating technologies which at present are known to be economically competitive. It can be concluded that future policies on transforming the energy system should be based on an analysis that takes the entire energy infrastructure (in this case of heating system) into account (e.g. not directed towards single technologies). More specifically for the region studied, which is considered representative for Sweden as a whole, policies should aim at installing heat pumps to replace electricity heating only in regions with low heat density where district heating is not competitive, in contrary to the present situation where heat pumps replace all types of heating systems.

Relevance of air conditioning for 222Radon concentration in shops of the Savona Province, Italy

Radon ( 222Rn) concentration was evaluated in shops of the Savona Province, Italy, between summer 2002 and winter 2002–2003. The main characteristics of each shops were recorded through a questionnaire investigating the ventilation rate and factors related to 222Rn precursors in the soil and the construction materials. The main variables that were related to radon concentration were the following: age of the building, level of the shop above ground, season of the year, wind exposure, active windows, and type of heating system. Shops equipped with individual air heating/conditioning systems exhibited radon concentrations that were three times higher than those of shops heated by centralized furnaces. Our data indicate that the level of pollution in the shops was of medium level, with an expected low impact on the salespersons' health. Only in wintertime, the action level of 200 Bq m −3 for the confined environment was reached in 10 shops equipped with individual air heating/conditioning systems.

Ocular, nasal, dermal and respiratory symptoms in relation to heating, ventilation, energy conservation, and reconstruction of older multi-family houses.

The aim was to study relationships between symptoms compatible with the sick building syndrome, type of heating and ventilation system, energy saving, and reconstruction in older dwellings. In Stockholm, 4815 inhabitants in 231 multi-family buildings built before 1961 were randomly selected, of whom 3241 participated (77%). Symptoms and personal factors were assessed by a postal questionnaire. Independent information on building characteristics, and energy saving measures was gathered from the building owners. Multiple logistic regression analysis was applied to calculate odds ratios (OR) adjusting for age, gender, hay fever, current smoking, population density, type of ventilation, type of heating system, and ownership of the building. Subjects in buildings with a mechanical ventilation system had less ocular and nasal symptoms (OR = 0.29-0.85). Heating by electric radiators, and wood heating was associated with an increase of most symptoms (OR = 1.18-1.74). In total, 48% lived in buildings that had gone through at least one type of reconstruction or energy saving remedies during the latest 10 years, including exchange of heating or ventilation system, and sealing measures (exchange of windows, sealing of window frames, roof/attic insulation, and phasade insulation). Energy saving was associated with both a decrease and increase of different symptoms. Major reconstruction of the interior of the building was associated with an increase of most symptoms (OR = 1.09-1.90), and buildings with more than one sealing measure had an increase of ocular, nasal symptoms, headache and tiredness (OR = 1.22-2.49). In conclusion, major reconstruction of the interior, direct heated electric radiators, wood heating, and multiple sealing of buildings were associated with an increase of some symptoms. The study supports the view that mechanical ventilation in dwellings is beneficial from a health point of view.

Urban CO Exposure and Its Health Effects on Traffic Policemen in Ankara

Carbonmonoxide (CO) is an important component of air pollution caused by traffic exhaust fumes. CO can cause chronic poisoning which shows its first symptoms as headaches, blurry vision, difficulty in concentration, and confusion. With the increasing number of vehicles in metropolitan areas of Turkey, the CO level has also increased in the city air as is the case in the capital city of Ankara, especially at certain locations. As far as the effects of CO on humans are concerned, traffic policemen are the population group under risk due to their inhalation of CO-rich air while on duty at the crowded cross-sections of the city. The traffic policemen on duty at these cross-sections are exposed to these high levels of CO for at least 6 h. This study was performed to investigate the traffic policemen (traffic organizers) who are exposed to high concentrations of CO at crowded cross-sections of Ankara City and to find out if chronic CO intoxication exits among this risk group. The CO levels in the ambient air at these cross-sections have also been compared to, and correlated with measurements of CO in the expired air of the target population. Additional factors like smoking, general health status, type of heating systems used at home, etc., have been taken into consideration by evaluating special questionnaires filled out by the policemen. A control group of clerk policemen, who were not engaged in street traffic activities was formed for comparative purposes.

Measurement of thermal stratification in large single-cell buildings

This paper describes measured temperature profiles and thermal stratification in eight aircraft hangar buildings during the heating season. Presented also is the predicted impact of thermal stratification on heating energy requirements. The hangar buildings included two main ceiling heights (9.35 and 17.1 m (31 and 56 ft)), two ceiling types (flat and Quonset), two types of heating systems (vertical discharge forced warm air and downdraft convective unit heaters), and various types of large external doors. Measured stratification, expressed by floor-to-ceiling temperature differential, is in the range 4–11 °C (7.2–20 °F). Two air layers existed in the hangar bay area, a warm upper air layer and a cooler lower air layer. The lower air layer (up to 2 m (7 ft) high from the floor) is characterised by a steep vertical temperature gradient in the range 0.8–2.6 °C/m (0.4–1.4 °F/ft). In the upper air layer, above 2 m, the vertical temperature gradient shallows considerably to 0.5 °C/m (0.3 °F/ft). Results indicate that thermal stratification can have a significant impact on the building's heating energy requirements. In the hangar buildings studied, predicted excess heating energy requirements due to 8 °C floor-to-ceiling temperature differential can be as much as 38% as compared to the case with no stratification.

Modeling Dynamic Substitution Processes in Energy Supply Systems

Dynamic substitution processes between energy-conversion techniques are very important phenomena for the restructuring of energy systems. Using the method of synergetics, we develop a probabilistic model framework for individual decisions and their effects on the macroscopic configuration of energy supply systems. The derived probability transition rates are associated with socioeconomic parameters that are the basis for individual decisions. We state preliminary results of a case study for the room heating of private households in the former West Germany, which are based on a small data sample and a nonrepresentative poll. We find that the number of heating systems of one type, which are already installed, their ease of use, and the cost are the most important parameters for the selection of a new heating system. Using the estimated parameters, we simulate the diffusion of a new type of heating system, which is regarded as better than all the others, into the energy supply system. Its market share will r...

Thermal analysis for the residential base sample

Space-heating electrical load data is used with inside and outside air temperature data, collected as part of the End-Use Load and Consumer Assessment Program (ELCAP), to study the thermal performance of 127 residences. These homes are located in the Pacific Northwest, and are subject to a wide range of climates. The homes were selected to roughly represent the region's owner-occupied homes having permanently installed, electrical space-heating equipment. Several thermal performance parameters are computed from space-heating load data for each residence. These measures include annualized estimates for space-heating consumption under various assumptions, an as-observed heat loss coefficient ( UA), and a building balance temperature difference. The mean as-operated, annualized estimated consumption for 127 Base Sample homes is 12 100 kWh/yr or 82.5 kWh/m 2 yr of conditioned floor area. The mean measured inside air temperature for these homes is 20.6 °C. The mean as-operated, annualized estimated consumption is somewhat lower than other consumption forecasts for single-family housing in the region. The as-observed UAs for the ELCAP Residential Sample indicate most homes are outperforming expectations based on ASHRAE-calculated UAs. This discrepancy points to some differences between as-observed efficiencies for several types of heating system and foundation combinations.

Transient temperature responses of hydronic radiant floor heating system by different pipe embedding depth and water supply condition.

"Ondol" is a Korean unique heating system. It is a specific radiant floor heating system using combustion heat of briquette or timber in Korea. Such traditional "Ondol" is changed to radiant heating system with pipe-coil embedded in the floor or slab. This study has contributed to the understandings of the transient behaviours of Ondol-heated floor panels and enclosure exposed to this type of heating system. The result is that the water supply temperature had a large effect on the rate of increase in floor surface and room air temperature. But, in spite of a higher water supply temperature, the heat flow rate was not increased considerably. The shallow pipe embedding depths, of course, result in a low heat flow rate.

B-29 蓄熱床暖房に関する研究 : 暖房方式の異なる住宅における比較実測

B-29 蓄熱床暖房に関する研究 : 暖房方式の異なる住宅における比較実測

Incremental Drawing of Polyethylene-terephthalate Partially Oriented Yarn (PET-POY)**

Abstract Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is generally melt spun to give yarns which are then drawn at an elevated temperature since the glass transition (Tg) of PET is 70 °C. Incremental drawing of synthetic fibers involves the drawing of as-spun yarns in several discrete steps along the surface of two corotating conical bodies. For drawing at an elevated temperature a chamber type of heating system was designed in which the drawing bodies were enclosed and a constant temperature maintained. Multifilament PET-POY (Polyethylene Terephthalate-partially oriented yarn) of 130 denier/34 filaments was drawn at 300 m/min with the draw-ratios of 1.76, 1.84 and 2.00 respectively by incremental drawing process (IDP) as well as by the conventional drawing process (CDP) and the properties compared. It was seen that the mechanical and structural properties were significantly better in case of IDP than CDP at equivalent draw-ratios. The mechanical property results are explained on the basis of structural development during drawing.

Effect of indoor air pollution caused by domestic cooking on respiratory problems of elderly women

The purpose of the study was to assess the effect of indoor air pollution resulting from the use of gas cookers by elderly women (older than 65 years) who may be more susceptible to the harmful effects of indoor air pollutants because they spend a greater proportion of their time at home. A total of 560 elderly women living in the Krakow city center were included in the survey. The survey data were collected using standardized interviews dealing with coughing; phlegm production; dyspnea on effort; past chest illnesses diagnosed by a doctor; smoking habits; education; socioeconomic conditions; the type of heating system in the household; passive smoking; the type of cooking oven; the average time spent daily cooking meals; and the proportion of time spent daily in the kitchen and other rooms of the household. In all respondents, lung function was tested with a Vitalograph spirometer. The relative risk of chronic phlegm was strongly related to exposure duration due to cooking time. Regarding dyspnea on effort, there was an increased risk among those with longer exposure times, but the trend was not as steep as it was for chronic phlegm. The mean FEV 1 level was not related to domestic cooking time; however, the age-related FEV 1 decline coefficient was much greater in those elderly women who on average were involved in cooking activities longer.

Thermal performance monitoring results from the residential standards demonstration program

The Model Conservation Standards (MCS) were developed by the Northwest Power Planning Council in 1983. These standards were designed to save large amounts of space heating energy in new U.S. residential construction in the Pacific Northwest. Creation of the MCS resulted in a desire to demonstrate the actual savings of such energy efficiency standards. The Bonneville Power Administration sponsored the Residential Standards Demonstration Program (RSDP) in 1984 which resulted in the construction of 410 energy-efficient single-family homes in the four-state region. Typically these buildings incorporated design features such as high levels of insulation for attic, walls and floors, triple-glazed windows and airtight construction with heat-recovery ventilation. These MCS dwellings have been compared against another group of 410 new, but conventional homes in the Northwest to determine the actual savings of such efficiency standards for space heat. Each house was monitored for at least one year using a triple metering system that recorded energy use for space heat, domestic hot water and appliances. Average interior and exterior temperatures were also collected during the monitoring period. Extensive data was assembled from audit and survey information on the construction of the homes, their heating systems and other occupancy-related characteristics. This paper both summarizes results of the RSDP project and scrutinizes certain aspects associated with the buildings' monitored thermal performance. Monitored space heat savings for the energy-efficient MCS houses compared to the control buildings averaged 27.5 kWh/m 2 of floor area for the overall sample of 524 houses. Data analysis showed that differing levels of insulation in the buildings is the most powerful explanation for these differences. The program also illustrated how collection of simple end-use metering data can provide insight into the energy-use characteristics of residential buildings. Among other findings, we discovered that the type of heating system plays a large role in determining the relative efficiency of electrically heated houses. Residences with electric forced-air heating systems used an average of 15.9 kWh/m 2 more space heating energy than those without them. Houses with heat pumps or those using wood as their primary heat source used much less space heat electricity. We also discovered that houses with fireplaces tended to use more space heat energy. The study also examined infiltration and ventilation-related measures on the houses using fan pressurization and perfluorocarbon tracer gas (PFT) tests. We found that the RSDP control homes, intended to be representative of of current building practice in the Pacific Northwest, have relatively low rates of natural air infiltration — an average of about 0.4 air changes per hour (ACH). The natural air infiltration rate of the MCS houses tended to be tighter, on the order of 0.25 ACH. Air-to-air heat exchangers in the MCS houses were used an average of 9 h per day, and increased the overall ventilation rate in these homes to about 0.35 ACH.

The effect of domestic factors on respiratory symptoms and FEV1.

This study was conducted to determine whether indoor air pollution factors affected respiratory function and symptoms in 1357 non-smoking Caucasian children. Interviews were conducted to determine: exposure to pets and to gases, vapours and dusts from hobbies; the use of gas stoves; fireplaces, air conditioners and humidifiers; type of heating systems; and the number of residents, and the number of smokers in the home. The forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) was obtained from maximum expiratory flow volume curves, and symptoms from the application of a standardized questionnaire. Indoor pets and the use of fireplaces and humidifiers had no consistent relationships with FEV1 when considered individually or in combination with the other factors. Hobbies, the use of gas stoves, the absence of air conditioning, the use of hot water heating, crowded homes, and the presence of smokers in the home all had negative relationships with FEV1. The largest effect on lung function was observed in children from homes with hot water heating systems, whereas the smallest effect was observed in children with smokers in the home. Children who lived in homes with hot water heating systems with no air conditioning had mean FEV1 of up to 0.4 litres lower than did their counterparts who lived in homes with forced air heating and air conditioning. Pets, heating systems, cooking fuel, crowding and passive smoking showed no consistent effects on the reporting of any of the symptoms. Girls who were exposed to the emissions from indoor hobbies reported more phlegm, wheeze and dyspnoea.

Attenuation Of Smoke Detector Alarm Signals In Residential Buildings

The propagation of sound from smoke detector alarms through residential buildings has been investigated with respect to the effect of furnishings, type of heating system, and number of closed doors. A simple model representing the propagation path as a series of linked rooms, each modifying the sound level, is described and compared with measured attenuations in 11 houses. The model can be used t o determine the optimum number and location of smoke detector alarms.

Long-term thermodynamic performance of solar heat and power systems

This paper describes a long-term simulation study of solar thermal systems incorporating second-law considerations. Both open-loop and closed-loop heat collecting configurations are simulated using hourly meteorological data. The entropy generation in each subcomponent is calculated on an hourly basis to obtain the yearly mean second-law efficiency. The effects of load temperature, mode of operation, collector type, collector area and storage tank size are investigated. Some results are presented for a solar-Rankine power plant using R-12 and R-22 as the working fluids. The use of the plate temperature as the ‘source’ temperature gives an optimal collector size which maximizes the second-law efficiency. When the equivalent ‘sun’ temperature is used, the second-law efficiency decreases with collector area for both types of heating system.

Some problems of the design, manufacture, installation, and operation of mechanical equipment in low-temperature regions

1. The most important direction in works to increase the efficiency of producing mechanical equipment and metal structural elements intended for service at minus temperatures is a substantial improvement of the quality of products being manufactured. 2. The choice of materials for mechanical equipment of hydraulic structures in a “northern make” can be made only by a comprehensive approach with consideration of the characteristics of their production and operation of the mechanical equipment. 3. When choosing the grade of steel it is necessary to attach particular importance to the structure of the fracture, on the quantity of fibers of which at low temperatures depends the resistance of highly loaded structural elements and mechanical equipment. 4. Designing of deep high-head gates requires consideration of problems which must be solved only with reference to the particular structure and with complete satisfaction of the temporary and permanent operating conditions. 5. The gate chambers of intakes located in low-temperature regions must have a closed heated room. 6. It is completely impermissible to put into operation mechanical equipment intended for operating at low temperatures without having completed the installation of various types of heating systems, insulation, and air-blowing devices and without having checked their reliable operation.

Warm Air or Radiant Heating?

The different characteristics of the two forms of heating are well documented, hut there is a supposition that radiant heating offers more polential for energy saving because of the lower air temperatures needed for comfort. The issue has been studied at the UK Electricity Council Research Centre at Capenhurst, using both the simplified procedure in the CIBS Guide and a more detailed computer program. The results suggest that in a well insulated room there is little to choose between the two types of heating system. Concentrating more heat radiation on the occupants rapidly leads to high temperature asymmetries, while a high-temperature warm air source leads to vertical air temperature gradients. Forced warm air may increase the convective transfer coefficient, thus increasing the rate of heat flow into the surface. However, in large, highly ventilated spaces, such as factories, there are definite energy savings to be made by the use of radiant heaters.

Domestic heating systems and their selection

Current trends in domestic heating practice are reviewed and the effects of higher standards of building insulation on heating system selection and performance are considered. Characteristics of the basic types of heating system are examined in the light of increased energy consciousness. Alternative design philosophies are identified and the practical implications of low energy buildings in the selection and design of heating systems are discussed. The arguments are illustrated by reference to experimental low energy houses constructed in Salford and the results of investigative experiments on the houses are considered from a practical viewpoint.

A national field survey of house temperatures

Information about temperatures in houses is of importance in assesing the value of various energy conservation measures and gives an indication of the standards of thermal comfort enjoyed by the occupants. In the present paper results are discussed of the most extensive survey of domestic dwelling temperatures to have been taken in the U.K. During February and March 1978, when the outside temperature was close to the average for the heating season, spot measurements of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures were made in each room of 1000 homes nationwide. On the same occasion, an interview was conducted with an adult member of the household to obtain information on thermal comfort conditions and heating patterns. The globe temperature was measured in the room where the interview took place (usually the living-room). Interviews were conducted both during the daytime and in evenings, and at weekends as well as on weekdays. The mean of the living-room temperatures recorded was 18.3°C, mean kitchen temperature 16.7°C and mean temperature of the warmest bedroom 15.2°C. The average dwelling temperature was 15.8°C. The major sources of variance in temperature were the type and operation of the heating system, the dwelling age, household income, the time of day and geographical location. Household composition was a minor factor. The living-room temperature was relatively insensitive to the above-mentioned factors and had the appearance of being held at a level more or less independent of that in the rest of the dwelling. Centrally-heated houses ran 3°C warmer on average than non-centrally-heated houses. However, the difference in mean temperatures in the living-rooms between the two categories was only 1.5°C dry-bulb and 0.9°C globe temperature. Although strong correlations between a number of the explanatory variables, such as dwelling age and heating system type, means that a deeper analysis is required before a firm causal model can be proposed, the results provide an important new basis for assessing energy conservation options in domestic space heating.