Types Of Grammars Research Articles

OLD UKRAINIAN SLOVUTA AND «OLD EUROPEAN» HYDRONYMY

The paper offers a new etymology of the Old Ukrainian hydronym Slovuta and its derivational congeners Slovuticь and Slovutičь against the background of the non-Slavic equivalent Dъněprъ and the Greek transcriptions Δάναπρις and Βορυσϑένης. The proposed explication of OU Slovuta is undertaken in the context of research on «Old European» hydronymy as first introduced within Krahe’s school of thought. The author substantiates the origins of the derivative Slovuticь / Slovutičь in the historical paratactic construction Dъneprъ-Slovuticь. A comparison with other paratactic constructions shows that this derivative is a result of the historical substantivization of Slavic nouns used primarily in the attributive function. In place of its commonly accepted participial interpretation, the author treats the form Slovuta as an athematic denominative from PU *slov-ǫt-a continuing an earlier formation with the original meaning ‛the one who possesses the quality of *slov-’. The postulated base *slov- is characterized by onomatopoetic syncretism of both the sound of rinsing, washing, flowing (PIE *k̂leṷH-) and its perception (PIE *k̂leṷ-), while the termination -ā functions as a «noun class marker» designating a natural stream of fresh water. The author also argues that the underlying formation PIE *k̂leṷH-/ *k̂leṷ-ont-ā >*k̂leṷ(H)-ont-ā (> PS slov-ont-ā > PU slov-ǫt-ā > OU slov-ut-a) could have appeared in the early-inflecting «Old European» period in the formation of Indo-European, transitional from the active grammar type to the system of nominative-accusative grammar.

On the asymmetry of wh-doubling in varieties of German and Dutch

Abstract This paper combines experimental, theoretical and quantitative approaches to syntactic microvariation. The empirical goal is to clarify the situation with respect to wh-doubling (also: wh-copying) in varieties of German and Dutch. With a large-scale survey in the German and Dutch language areas we sought to establish which speakers allow wh-doubling, which speakers allow right-complexity, i.e., configurations in which the lower copy of the wh-dependency is more complex that the higher one, and which speakers allow left-complexity, i.e., the reverse, with a more complex higher copy. We also wanted to know whether there are associations between these properties, to identify groups of speakers and dialects. We found three types of grammars: (i) a grammar that allows both wh-doubling and right- and left-complexity, (ii) a grammar that allows wh-doubling and has a strong preference for right-complexity over left-complexity, and (iii) a grammar that does not allow any wh-doubling configuration. This shows that there is a clear limit to variation in this domain. Grammars with a preference for left-complexity do not exist. We then point out the consequences of these findings for the copy theory of movement, and for analyses that enrich this theory with the option of partial deletion.

Critical Linguistics of The Crimea Bridge Explosion on The Guardian and CNN Online News

This research focuses on analyzing the types of grammar and ideological representations in the news texts of The Guardian and CNN online news using the Critical Linguistics analysis model of Roger Fowler et.al (1979). Then the Discourse Historical Approach from Ruth Wodak (2001) is used to know the historical background of this topic. This research uses a descriptive qualitative method to find out what types of grammar are contained in the news text and how the grammar represents the ideology of the news. The explosion occurred as a result of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine. This topic has attracted public attention, therefore, online news media such as The Guardian and CNN are discussing it. At this time online news media plays an important role in disseminating information, but in fact the language used in online news media can contain certain ideologies that benefit one group and harm other groups. Based on the results of Critical Linguistics analysis from Roger Fowler et.al (1979), it is found that the ideology of the two online media is anti-Russian and pro-Ukrainian. The findings of this study show that there are 28 types of grammar in The Guardian and 17 grammatical strategies in CNN. The type of grammar that often appears from both media is transitivity grammar. In representing their ideology, both online media often use negative lexical choices to give negative references to the Russian side. Future researchers can develop their analysis by using different theoretical studies and objects.

ГРАММАТИКА ДИНАМИЧЕСКИХ ТРАНСФОРМАЦИЙ ЯЗЫКА

The article describes the main parameters of the new language research methodology based on the theory of grammaticalization and the theory of idiomatization. Such an interpretation of the grammatical language structure makes it possible to study the linguistic units of various language subsystems (free and idiomatized) as well as different language levels. A new type of grammar is the grammar of dynamic transformations of language (“Inductive Grammar”). At the same time, the emphasis is placed on the disclosure of the formation dynamics and development of linguistic signs and the language as a whole, and therefore it is predominantly diachronic, although the synchronic approach is also relevant. The universal principle of the language units formation and the development of the language system as a whole is the processes determined by the categories of the logical - the general and the particular. They play the leading role in the processes of conceptualization and categorization of knowledge. Hence, the main thing in the presented language model is the phenomenon of grammaticalization, which largely determines the semiotic basis of the language existence. Grammaticalization is a universal characteristic and it is fundamental. At the same time, the main principle of constructing a language sign and the entire language system lies in their dynamic transformation, i.e. graduation and constant increase in their grammaticalization degree in the process of generation and development. The phenomena of grammaticalization and idiomatization are contiguous, but not identical. Grammaticalization is broader and more autonomous, idiomatization is more diverse and derivative. Grammaticalization is a mechanism of idiomatization. The parameterization of all linguistic units in the aspect of the presented theoretical model, as well as languages of various types, seems promising to establish not only the index of analyticism / synthetism, but also the index of grammaticalization. This will help to describe the ways including the sequence of the formation and development of the world’s languages.

Design of Internet Platform for English Teaching in Colleges and Universities under the Background of Big Data

Abstract This paper constructs an English teaching platform based on a speech recognition algorithm and Internet technology, adopts a three-tier architecture to design the web application, and combines the server and browser technology to realize the operation of data interaction with the SQL database. A rectangular bandpass filter is selected for narrow-band information extraction by introducing the sinc function to improve the feature extraction efficiency of speech signals at each frequency. CTC is used to obtain input feature-to-state mapping to solve the sequence problem in speech recognition and achieve end-to-end speech recognition. To achieve the final audio recognition results, the speech decoding algorithm is employed to select the optimal speech output. The results show that in the listening score, the score of the experimental group is 9, and the score of the control is 6. The completion rate of the topics among students who studied on the English teaching platform was higher than that among students who were taught in ordinary English. The completion rate is 0.82 for English questions of grammar type and 0.98 for English questions of listening type, and the average number of passes is the least number of passes, and the number of times is 2.

A role of functional morphemes in Korean categorial grammars

Abstract This study discusses a role of functional morphemes in Korean categorial grammars, providing the reviews of various types of Korean categorial grammars that have never been conducted so far, notwithstanding many previous studies on them. Previous work has presented different morphological segmentation because of Korean’s agglutinative characteristics, implying that Korean words may contain a different segmentation sequence of morphemes. We focus on functional morphemes in Korean categorial grammars, which have been explored in different ways by previous work. We present detailed analyses for postpositions and verbal endings in categorial grammars, insisting that the functional morphemes in Korean should be treated as part of a word, with the result that their categories do not require to be assigned individually in a syntactic level, and also that it would be more efficient to assign the syntactic categories on the fully inflected lexical word derived by the lexical rule of the morphological processes in the lexicon.

Use of FOSS for Teaching the Parser Types to Improve Problem Solving Ability A Case Study on Analysis of Gender based Discrimination in Education

Compiler Design is one of the core courses of Computer Science and Engineering. Syntax Analyzer or Parser is important phase in designing the compiler. So while designing this phase of the compiler, students must have thorough knowledge about the types of parser such as LL(1), SLR, Canonical LR and LALR. In the parser phase, the parsing table is built for given Context Free Grammar (CFG). While implementing this parsing phase in laboratory session, two Free Open Source Software (FOSS) - JFLAP and Parsing Emulator, are considered to explain the types of parser and building the parsing table for the CFG using these parser types. JFLAP is software for experimenting with formal languages topics including nondeterministic finite automata, nondeterministic pushdown automata, multi-tape Turing machines, several types of grammars, parsing, and Lsystems. So this tool is considered for parsing phase of Compiler. JFLAP tool is used to explain the steps to be followed to solve the given problem using the parsing technique. Parsing simulator is a software which implements the parsing table for the Context Free Grammars in tool. This simulator is used to generate parsing table (LL1, SLR, LR, and LALR). Parsing Emulator tool is used for practicing the problem statement given in the tool. In current study, use of FOSS such as JFLAP and Parsing Emulator is considered for teaching parser types to improve problem solving ability. The Learning Objectives (LOs) of this study are: To build the parsing table for given CFG using LL(1) and SLR parser (LO1) and to parse the given string using LL(1) and SLR parser (LO2). The research questions for this study are – whether the use of FOSS improves the problem solving ability of the students? and whether gender bias is there in education? Two groups post-test method is considered to check the effectiveness of this use of FOSS in learning the parser types. Also the students’ perception about this method is also considered. The result shows that the students’ problem solving ability of experimental group is improved as compared to the control group irrespective of gender. Keywords- FOSS (Free Open Source Software) JFLAP, Parsing Emulator, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Post-test, t-Test.

THE ROLE AND PLACE OF WRITING TASKS IN LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT UNIVERSITY

The article reveals the importance of developing foreign language writing skills among future specialists at foreign language classes at university. The concept of writing and the tools and opportunities for its development have been revealed. It has been noted that the components of success in mastering writing skills and building written communication are vocabulary, grammar and experience. The connection between the mastery of writing skills and the quality of teaching a foreign language has been established. The article highlights the issue of a text implementation in several language layers: orthography, grammar and discourse. It has been stated that the nature of the text is controlled by context, which includes social purpose, specific audience, modality, etc. It has been noted that writing is a recursive process that includes cognitive processes: planning, preparation, actual text writing, task performance monitoring and evaluation. The article states that before completing a written task, a teacher should familiarize students with the features of writing in the corresponding foreign language; the teacher should show students several writing styles or writing examples to familiarize them with writing patterns and forms. It has been emphasized that writing is one of the means of overcoming the psychological barrier in the process of mastering a foreign language, and written tasks in a foreign language are aimed at activating the working memory of students and providing space for thinking and generating content. The article offers examples of tasks for the development of writing skills at foreign language classes: tasks related to personal and real life experience, a task to complete a description, a task related to one word, a task to use the given words and their derivatives, etc. Emphasis has been placed on the role and importance of creative writing as an effective method of developing writing skills, encouraging students to this type of language activity, developing vocabulary, grammar, and imagination. The role and place of evaluation in the process of performance of written tasks has been noted.

Thokaapiyam and Nambiaga Porul in a Comparative Theoretical Approach

Ancient Tamil language is rich in grammar. Grammar is obtained from literature as oil is obtained from sesame seeds. There are about fifty grammar books in Tamil. These are the five types of grammars such as letter, word, object, word, and group. The five types of grammars are related to each other, such as the word formed by letters, the pattern used to express the meaning of the word, and the pattern used for the method of speaking. Among these, the things that come to represent the meaning of writing, and the things that come to represent the meaning of words, are the one that excels. This study is to investigate how a content can be found similar, expanded, and separate. Grammar is the protocol developed by the scholars according to the Tamil tradition to regulate the visual language of this case. The text “Nambiyaga Porul” is believed to have been composed by Nambiar in the 12th century BC. It was composed by adapting the grammar of the Tolkapiyam. The text expands the ideas that need to be expanded and summarizes what needs to be said. This book has five parts. Total there are 252 chapters such as 116 in Agam, 54 in Kalavu, 29 in Varaivu, 10 in Karpiyal, and 43 in Olibiyal. The text also explains Thirukkovaiyar's definition about grammar. 'Grammar is the norm for literature and many attempts were done to find the changes taking place in grammar. The first book in these processes was Tanjaivanan’s “Kovai’. Tradition prevails in the society as rules, virtues, restrictions and structures. Thus, Nambi named the book as “Agaporul Vilakkam”. Later, it was given as “Nambiyaga Porul” with his name. The aim of this article is to know the similar, extensive, doubt-dispelling elements that can be found in Tolkappiyam's epistemology and in the epistemology of Nambiyaga Porul.

BERTOEIC: Solving TOEIC Problems Using Simple and Efficient Data Augmentation Techniques with Pretrained Transformer Encoders

Recent studies have attempted to understand natural language and infer answers. Machine reading comprehension is one of the representatives, and several related datasets have been opened. However, there are few official open datasets for the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), which is widely used for evaluating people’s English proficiency, and research for further advancement is not being actively conducted. We consider that the reason why deep learning research for TOEIC is difficult is due to the data scarcity problem, so we therefore propose two data augmentation methods to improve the model in a low resource environment. Considering the attributes of the semantic and grammar problem type in TOEIC, the proposed methods can augment the data similar to the real TOEIC problem by using POS-tagging and Lemmatizing. In addition, we confirmed the importance of understanding semantics and grammar in TOEIC through experiments on each proposed methodology and experiments according to the amount of data. The proposed methods address the data shortage problem of TOEIC and enable an acceptable human-level performance.

Jimmy Van Rijt: UNDERSTANDING GRAMMAR THE IMPACT OF LINGUISTIC METACONCEPTS ON L1 GRAMMAR EDUCATION

This book takes as its starting point the contested issue of explicit grammar teaching, providing a contextual framing for the book’s focus on learners’ development of conceptual understanding of linguistic terms. A thorough and critical synthesis of the ‘grammar debate’ is provided, drawing on perspectives from both L1 and L2, and from across different educational jurisdictions. This synthesis discusses the historical shift in L1 teaching, especially in Anglophone countries, from a routine acceptance that explicit grammar teaching is a core component of the first language curriculum to one which rejected grammar on the grounds of its irrelevance to the process of language learning. This shift is paralleled, to an extent, in second language teaching, with the move away from grammar-translation approaches to communicative language teaching, where language learners acquire grammatical competence through using the language in communicative contexts, rather than through explicit teaching. Van Rijt observes that this rejection of explicit grammar teaching is predicated on assumptions that grammar should only be taught if it serves the purpose of becoming more literate or linguistically competent, an instrumentalist view, and compares this with a cultural perspective, where learning grammatical knowledge is valuable in its own right. This opening discussion does not shy away from the complexities of this topic, considering, for example, the distinction between form-focused and function-focused teaching, the different linguistic theorists which inform different perspectives, and the ideologically normative views of policy-makers in some countries. He teases out the ambiguity in the notion of ‘traditional grammar teaching’, noting the difference between what might represent traditional teaching or traditional grammar, and arguing that ‘traditional teaching’ concerns itself principally with how grammar is taught, whereas ‘traditional grammar’ concerns itself with what type of grammar is taught.

Context-sensitive fusion grammars and fusion grammars with forbidden context are universal

Context-sensitive fusion grammars and fusion grammars with forbidden context are special cases of context-dependent fusion grammars where instead of finite sets of positive and negative context conditions in the first case a rule has only a single positive context condition and in the second case a rule has only a finite set of negative context conditions. In this paper, we show that several decision problems can be formulated quite intuitively by these grammars. In particular, we show that the Boolean satisfiability problem as well as the Post correspondence problem can be transformed into a context-sensitive fusion grammar and that the graph coloring problem can be transformed into a fusion grammar with forbidden context such that the generated languages give solutions for the problems. Furthermore, we prove that both grammar types can generate all recursively enumerable string languages (up to representation of strings as graphs) and are universal in this respect.

CIVAPPIRAKĀCAR YĀPPIYAL PĀVAṬIVAM [USAGE OF METRE IN SIVAPRAKASAR POEMS

The Tamil literary and grammatical field has grown to be remarkably and rich. In popular the specialiced field of knowledge yappilakkanathurai, has been enriching itself from the oral tradition over time and renewing itself on many levels. Among the five types of grammars in tamil, the yappilakkanam refers to the five types of pages, namely Venba, asiriyappa, kalippa, vancippa, Marutpa incorporate. Sivaprakasar, who is considered to be one of the three most famous 17 th century AD writters, has used the four distinctive types of pagodas Various books of poetry were created. So, developed in later stages of development such as pavinam, inavinam, sindhu vanna virutam, santa virutam, etc. in more than thirty works sung by him. This article explores how Sivaprakasar explores the fact that he has sung the song of pa form, which many may be his fathers, taking only the traditional form of sacrament setting up.

Electronic Music and Generative Remixing: Improving L-Systems Aesthetics and Algorithms

Abstract Postmodern art theories, overproduction, and digital technologies are testing the creativity, innovation, and social and political engagement of art. One Dadaist solution being explored by artists is the aesthetic possibilities associated with the conceptual process. For example, in the field of electronic music, producers and DJs are claiming that remixing is a genuine example of such a creative procedure; however, to justify this claim, remixing requires the bringing of the aesthetic foundations together using digital tools. The main problem is that digital audio workstations and plug-ins enclose artists in specific frameworks that blur the boundaries between true creativity and a perception of creativity. This article sought to develop remixing codes and software using Lindenmayer systems (L-systems), which are parallel rewriting systems with a type of formal grammar. As much of their potential remains unexplored, some algorithms and interface designs were developed to improve their interactive programming options. Finally, using the programmable L-systems as a genetic metaphor, some additions to musical morphing were developed as a starting point to building a generative remixing technique.

Turing Machine Engenders the Grammar for Formal Languages and Machine Design

A Turing machine is a mathematical mechanism corresponding to a digital computer. It is a widely used model of computation in computability and complexity theory. According to Turing’s hypothesis, if a Turing machine computes function, then only it is done by an algorithm. If the Turing machine cannot tackle any problem, then it cannot be resolved by any modern computer. It accepts all types of languages. The Turing machine is cable to solve the problems which are solved by modern computers. It accepts all kinds of languages hence there is no need to recognize the type of grammar. The function of the central processing unit is simulated by a Turing machine and simply represents logic. The formal language tool generates grammar for any language. It generates any natural language grammar. It is a core part of Artificial Intelligence.

A Theoretical Foundation for Syntactico-Semantic Pattern Recognition

Conventionally syntactic pattern recognition tasks have been driven by grammars defining a syntactic structure. Syntactic Pattern recognition tasks were primarily relying on the ability of parsing algorithms to recognize the patterns in the input data. These algorithms essentially were dependent on the syntactic grammars defining the patterns. Context free grammars, a type of grammars have been particularly well studied for pattern recognition tasks to be solved by computer efficiently. Some of the key pattern recognition tasks had applications in Natural Language Processing (NLP). Though context free grammars are well suited for capturing rigid patterns and unambiguous patterns, there was a need to encapsulate the uncertainty aspects involved in some pattern recognition processes. Probabilistic context free grammars can well handle the need to capture uncertainty in the processes but not in a true sense they are able to capture the uncertainty associated with the semantic context governing the domain in which the pattern recognition processes are being attempted at. The paper formally puts forth an approach for syntactico-semantic pattern recognition. The syntactico-semantic pattern recognition attempts to capture the semantic context and the uncertainties involved thereof along with probabilistic reasoning. The approach consists of integration mapping between probabilistic context free grammar (PCFG) and Multi Entity Bayesian network (MEBN), a first-order logic for modeling probabilistic knowledge bases. Additionally, the paper outlines a modified version of the CYK parser algorithm for the defined mapping between PCFG and MEBN with a method to ensure the properness and consistency of such PCFG along with its key application, disambiguation of PP (Prepositional Phrase) attachment. The theoretical foundation proposed has been validated by a proof-of-concept implementation of the modified CYK algorithm for syntactico-semantic reasoning in Java with promising ability to disambiguate PP attachment uses cases of New York Times and Wikipedia corpus dataset samples.

Grammar and Composition Questions of Chinese Language Teacher Candidates’ Tests: 1997-2020

This text deals with question items set in the grammar & composition writing section of the Chinese teacher recruitment examinations for a total of 24 years (1997-2020) for the purpose of research. It is very important to look at the evaluation methods and evaluation details of the appointment examination to select excellent teachers. The main results of the study by question type and evaluation contents through analysis of a total of 168 questions based on 112 questions and sub-question criteria are as follows. First, as a result of analyzing the percentage of questions according to the question types: narrative type 41.2% , selective type 25%, short answer type 4%, essay type 6.1%, complete type 4.3%, and integrated type 20%. Second, the analysis result according to the evaluation contents: the typical problem type of grammar was error correction, and the representative problem type of composition writing was word order arrangement. The most frequently asked part of speech was the verb with 17 times questions, and the sentence component was the complement with 34 times questions. We were able to understand the changes and the current status of the overall test trends and examine the detailed evaluation factors.

Uniform parsing for hyperedge replacement grammars

It is well known that hyperedge-replacement grammars can generate NP-complete graph languages even under seemingly harsh restrictions. This means that the parsing problem is difficult even in the non-uniform setting, in which the grammar is considered to be fixed rather than being part of the input. Little is known about restrictions under which truly uniform polynomial parsing is possible. In this paper we propose a low-degree polynomial-time algorithm that solves the uniform parsing problem for a restricted type of hyperedge-replacement grammars which we expect to be of interest for practical applications.

English Writing Errors Committed by Saudi Students: A Study of Two Female University Groups

The main aim of this study is to highlight the writing errors made by Saudi students majoring in English. The study selected a sample of two groups of female Saudi students residing in two Saudi regions: Tabuk and Hafr Al Batin. The students were requested to write approximately three to four paragraphs about one of three topics related to Saudi Arabia: social media and its effects on Saudi social life, marriage customs in Saudi Arabia, or the economy of Saudi Arabia. In analyzing the collected writing data, the students’ writing errors were identified and classified into four categories: grammar type, syntax type, mechanics type, and lexical type errors. Then, the frequency and error percentages of each subcategory were calculated for both groups. The findings show that both groups produced most errors in the subcategory of spelling followed by tenses subcategory even though the students from the University of Hafr Al Batin made overall higher percentages of errors than the errors’ percentages made by the students from the University of Tabuk. Further investigation reveals that all students in both regions hardly practice English writing and that Arabic interference contributes to the students’ English writing errors. The findings also imply that the curricula specialists at the Saudi ministry of education might consider including more educational material to improve the English writing skills of Saudi university students.

Relevance of Mother Tongue National Examinations to Mother Tongue Curriculum (Syllabus) and Textbooks: The Case of Wolaita Language in Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia

The objective of the study was to assess the relevance of mother tongue national examinations to MT curriculum, syllabus and textbooks. The participants of the study were teachers were 128. Three instruments were used to collect the data: questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis method were employed to arrive at conclusions. Thus, the research findings assured that grade-10 mother tongue (Wolaytato) national exam was not related to the textbook, syllabus and curriculum and most of the questions were not prepared from the text book, and curriculum and this affected student result in grade 10 Wolaytato national exam for many years. Accordingly, it was recommended that the school directors, wereda education office and the examination agency should work cooperatively to prepare the Wolaytato national exam according to the curriculum, text book and syllabus. The Examination Agency of Ethiopia and other stakeholders like Zone and south education department should follow that the exam includes various types of questions like listening, speaking, reading, grammar and other type of questions.