Types Of Distraction Research Articles

Hazard-based duration approach for understanding pedestrian crossing risk exposure at signalised intersection crosswalks – A case study of Kolkata, India

Pedestrian signal violation is a significant concern among policymakers and traffic engineers as this leads to a pedestrian-vehicle crash. The waiting time for a pedestrian at intersections is crucial in street-crossing decision-making. Once pedestrians terminate their waiting behaviour during the red-light period, they would cross in the red light and put themselves in danger. A total of 2089 red-light arriving pedestrian observations were made at eight intersection crosswalks across Kolkata city (India). With the help of hazard-based duration models, the waiting duration till signal violation has been analysed. Kaplan–Meier curve has been plotted to understand the survival probabilities. A semi-parametric Cox Proportional Hazard model was used to understand the different factors influencing signal violation behaviour. However, the proportional hazard assumption was not satisfied. Therefore, a parametric Accelerated Failure Time (AFT) model was used to understand the various covariates that affect the waiting duration. The results highlighted that 49.5% of pedestrians crossed immediately after arriving at the intersection in the red-light phase. A pedestrian’s probability of crossing the road when it is unsafe, i.e., motor vehicles still have green or yellow, varies with the waiting time. As waiting time increases, pedestrians get impatient and violate the traffic signal. This violation places them at an increased risk of being struck by a motor vehicle. The covariate analysis using the AFT model showed that pedestrian glance/looking behaviour, different types of distractions, signal cycle length, carrying luggage, and traffic plying on the road impacted signal violation behaviour. Signal modifications by reducing red-light phase length for pedestrians might be the most efficient means of reducing the likelihood of signal violation and being hit by a motor vehicle.

Positive and negative mood states do not influence cross-modal auditory distraction in the serial-recall paradigm.

The aim of this study was to examine whether positive and negative mood states affect auditory distraction in a serial-recall task. The duplex-mechanism account differentiates two types of auditory distraction. The changing-state effect is postulated to be rooted in interference-by-process and to be automatic. The auditory-deviant effect is attributed to attentional capture by the deviant distractors. Only the auditory-deviant effect, but not the changing-state effect, should be influenced by emotional mood states according to the duplex-mechanism account. Four experiments were conducted to test how auditory distraction is affected by emotional mood states. Mood was induced by autobiographical recall (Experiments 1 and 2) or the presentation of emotional pictures (Experiments 3 and 4). Even though the manipulations were successful in inducing changes in mood, neither positive mood (Experiments 1 and 3) nor negative mood (Experiments 2 and 4) had any effect on distraction despite large samples sizes (N = 851 in total). The results thus are not in line with the hypothesis that auditory distraction is affected by changes in mood state. The results support an automatic-capture account according to which the auditory-deviant effect and the changing-state effect are mainly stimulus-driven effects that are rooted in the automatic processing of the to-be-ignored auditory stream.

Assessing the Effect of Eating as a Distraction Factor While Driving on Drivers' Performance

The increase in the number of traffic accidents, deaths, and injuries is a major concern for traffic and safety professionals. Distraction from the road is common, but increases safety concerns. Drivers engage in many behaviors that are a distraction from the task of driving, and these sources may be inside or outside the vehicle. The driver may not have a clear idea of the negative impact of such activities on achieving safe driving. The paper focused on one type of distraction that occurs inside the car, the factor of eating while driving in order to address the question of whether such activities cause anxiety. The effect of eating while driving as an additional task (dual task) compared to driving baseline (single task) on each driver's performance and safety was studied. This research was conducted at the University of Technology-Iraq uses a fixed and medium accuracy driving simulator. To measure driver performance, the driver's ability to maintain a set speed limit was tested. For safety, the driver's ability to avoid accidents was measured. The highway environment scenario was adopted to perform driving experiences for the 42 participants, the length of the road was 15 km, and the driving experience took (30) minutes at a rate of (10-15) minutes for each driving task. The results revealed a decrease in the mean journey speed of all participants during the (dual driving) experiment compared to the results of the mean journey speed (single driving). The speed of females decreased more than males. The youngest age group (19-29) years led at a faster rate than the age groups (30-39), (40-49), and (50-55). No accidents were recorded during the baseline driving task. In the dual driving task, females recorded a higher number of accidents than males. The youth category (19-29) was characterized by recording the largest number of accidents.

How are different sources of distraction associated with at-fault crashes among drivers of different age gender groups?

IntroductionDistracted driving has been well researched, however the comparison between different age-gender groups on the impact of distracted driving has not been explored. Most crash analysis research does not distinguish driver responsibility, so the role that distractions has in at-fault crashes is unknown. Without distinguishing at-fault crashes from all-cause crashes, distracted driving's detrimental effects could be underestimated. ObjectiveThis study aims to systematically assess the risk of at-fault crashes associated with different sources of distraction among six groups by driver age (Teens 16–19, Adults 20–64, Seniors 65+) and gender. MethodsCrashes where a study participant was deemed at fault were identified using human expert annotated variables from the Strategic Highway Research Program 2 (SHRP2) Naturalistic Driving Study dataset. Generalized linear mixed models were performed to assess the adjusted odds ratios of 10 distraction types associated with the at-fault crashes while controlling for environmental factors. ResultsThe main findings are (1) The highest contributing distraction types in at-fault crashes were In-Cabin Objects, Mobile Device, External Scenes, and In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS) as indicated by their influence on multiple age-gender groups and the magnitude of odds ratios; (2) Teens and adults were more distraction-prone than seniors, although seniors had the greatest at-fault crash risks associated with In-Cabin Objects, Mobile Device, and IVIS; (3) Distractions impacted females and males similarly; (4) At-fault crashes were more likely to have the significant distraction types present than all-cause crashes. ConclusionThis study adds to the limited literature on at-fault crashes particularly as it explores the role of driver demographics and distracted driving. Analyzing the risks of distracted driving by age-gender group shows that specific activities can be riskier for a certain population. The effects of distractions may be overlooked without fault determination. Distractions by external scenes, in-vehicle technologies, and in-cabin objects should not be overlooked, in addition to mobile device use.

Концепция лечения взрывных переломов и переломов тел позвонков с дистракцией и ротацией грудного и поясничного отделов позвоночника по принципу остаточной фиксированности

Актуальность. Для решения задачи создания концепции и алгоритма лечения прежде всего необходимо разработать рабочую классификацию, на основе которой будет построена концепция. Предложенная классификация должна обеспечить выбор наиболее эффективных методов лечения у каждого больного, одновременно максимально безопасных и малотравматичных. Классификационное распределение основано на диагностических признаках переломов тел позвонков, а именно определении морфологических факторов, приводящих к патологическим изменениям. Именно выявление характера и тяжести повреждения позвоночного сегмента позволяет предвидеть дальнейшее развитие деформации и оценивать эффективность использования определенного метода лечения в конкретной клинической ситуации. Материалы и методы. Общее число больных с травматическими повреждениями грудного и поясничного отделов позвоночника составило 113. Средний возраст пациентов — 34,3 года. Мужчин было 67,9 %, женщин — 32,1 %. Проведено ретроспективное исследование историй болезни, данных клинического обследования, рентгенологических, КТ, МРТ до и после лечения. Критерии включения: неосложненные и осложненные взрывные переломы и переломы тел позвонков с дистракцией и ротацией грудного и поясничного отделов позвоночника. Согласно универсальной классификации повреждений грудного и поясничного отделов позвоночника Magerl et al., которая является классификацией AOSpine Thoracolumbar Spine Injury Classification System, различают: неполный взрывной перелом типа А 3.1 и неполный взрывной перелом с раскалыванием типа А 3.2, полный взрывной перелом типа А 3.3, перелом тела позвонка типа А с дистракцией типа АВ (тип В 1.2, В 2.3) и перелом тела позвонка типа А с ротацией типа АС (тип С 1.3). В зависимости от наличия неврологической симптоматики пациентов распределили на тех, кто имел несложные (74 человека; 65,4 %) и осложненные (39; 34,5 %) повреждения. Результаты. Разработка классификации предполагает анализ диагностических критериев, а разработка концепции лечения — анализ эффективности определенного метода лечения. Предложенная рабочая хирургическая классификация создана на основе классификаций Magerl et al., TLIСS и распределения внутренних напряжений McCormack, а также результатов собственных экспериментальных и клинических исследований. В результате собственных клинико­экспериментальных исследований доказано, что с увеличением степени разрушения тела позвонка растет величина кифотической деформации на уровне повреждения. Таким образом, величина первичной кифотической деформации позвоночника напрямую зависит от степени разрушения тела позвонка (степень фрагментации). Выводы. Разработана концепция лечения пациентов с взрывными переломами и переломами тел позвонков с дистракцией и ротацией, которая позволяет выбрать оптимальный метод лечения на основании трех признаков: степени фрагментации тела позвонка, деформирования позвоночника по принципу остаточной фиксированности и деформирования позвоночного канала.

Forces Exerted in Craniofacial Distraction Osteogenesis.

The purpose of this study was to develop a methodology for quantifying linear forces of distraction osteogenesis, and thereafter apply this methodology to measure and compare distraction force magnitudes between cranial vault distraction osteogenesis (CVDO) and mandibular distraction osteogenesis (MDO). Patients undergoing CVDO or MDO as inpatients had distraction forces acquired with a digital torque-measuring screwdriver. Torque measurements were then converted into linear distraction force values, which were then compared across distraction types and protocols with appropriate statistics. CVDO was performed on 7 patients (41.2%), and MDO was performed on 10 patients (58.8%). Across the entire cohort, the average maximum force per activation was 27.0 N, and the average elastic force was 10.7 N. Maximum force (CVDO: 52.9 N versus MDO: 12.9 N; P < 0.001) and elastic force (CVDO: 22.0 N versus MDO: 4.5 N; P < 0.001) were significantly higher in patients undergoing CVDO than MDO. Multivariate regression demonstrated that maximum activation force was significantly associated with sequential days of distraction (B= + 1.1 N/day; P < 0.001), distraction rate (B= + 8.9 N/mm/day; P = 0.016), distractor hardware failure (B= + 10.3 N if failure; P = 0.004), and distraction type (B= + 41.4 N if CVDO; P < 0.001). Cranial vault distraction requires significantly more linear distraction force than mandibular distraction. Maximum forces increase with each day of distraction, as well as with increased distraction rates. Linear distraction force methodology from this study may provide the foundation for future development of optimized procedure-specific or patient-specific distraction protocols.

A Scoping Study on Driver’s Perspective of Distracting Factors

Distracting activities while driving are common and can result in errors that threaten road users’ safety. The main objectives of this study were to investigate drivers’ perspectives of the factors contributing to distraction, determine the relative rank of types of distractions, recognize the road factors and environmental effects that make distractions more dangerous, and identify the most effective measures to reduce driver distractions. A survey was conducted to assess Jordanian drivers’ experiences with distracted driving, and what solutions they believed could be implemented to solve the problems. The study’s outcomes revealed that drivers perceive visual distractions as the most dangerous, followed by cognitive, manual, and auditory distractions, respectively. It was also found that “mobile phone texting or dialing” was ranked the top most dangerous visual and manual distracting factor. “Baby is crying or kids are fighting in the back seat” was perceived by all demographic groups as the riskiest auditory factor. Regarding cognitive distraction, four factors were perceived as the most serious, of which “Baby is crying”, “Driving while angry or sad or agitated”, “Talking on a cell phone—even a hands-free one” and “Conversing with passengers” were determined to be the top four distracting factors. The results also revealed that drivers believe that “laws and enforcement” is the most effective measure to reduce distractions while driving.

Differences in Near-Crash Risk by Types of Distraction: A Comparison of Trends between Freeways and Two-Lane Highways using Naturalistic Driving Data

Distracted driving is among the leading causes of motor vehicle crashes in the United States, though the magnitude of this problem is difficult to quantify given limitations of police-reported crash data. This study leveraged data from the second Strategic Highway Research Program Naturalistic Driving Study to gain important insights into the risks posed by driver distraction on both freeways and two-lane highways. More than 50 types of secondary tasks were aggregated into ten distraction type categories and mixed-effects logistic regression models were estimated to discern how the risks of near-crash events varied by distraction type while controlling for the effects of driver, roadway, and traffic characteristics. In general, the types of distractions that created the most pronounced risks were those that introduced a combination of cognitive, visual, and manual distractions. For example, drivers who used cell phones were subject to higher risks and these risks tended to be most pronounced when both visual and manual distractions were involved. Likewise, risks tended to be highest when drivers reached for other objects inside the vehicle, engaged in personal hygiene-related activities, or focused on activities occurring outside of the driving environment. Although the same factors tended to increase near-crash risk on both types of facilities, the impacts of several factors tended to be more pronounced on two-lane highways where interaction with other vehicles occurred more frequently. From a policy standpoint, the results of this study provide further motivation for more aggressive legislation and enforcement of distracted driving.

Determining the risk of driver-at-fault events associated with common distraction types using naturalistic driving data

Introduction: Studies thus far have focused on automobile accidents that involve driver distraction. However, it is hard to discern whether distraction played a role if fault designation is missing because an accident could be caused by an unexpected external event over which the driver has no control. This study seeks to determine the effect of distraction in driver-at-fault events. Method: Two generalized linear mixed models, one with at-fault safety critical events (SCE) and the other with all-cause SCEs as the outcomes, were developed to compare the odds associated with common distraction types using data from the SHRP2 naturalistic driving study. Results: Adjusting for environment and driver variation, 6 of 10 common distraction types significantly increased the risk of at-fault SCEs by 20-1330%. The three most hazardous sources of distraction were handling in-cabin objects (OR = 14.3), mobile device use (OR = 2.4), and external distraction (OR = 1.8). Mobile device use and external distraction were also among the most commonly occurring distraction types (10.1% and 11.0%, respectively). Conclusions: Focusing on at-fault events improves our understanding of the role of distraction in potentially avoidable automobile accidents. The in-cabin distraction that requires eye-hand coordination presents the most danger to drivers’ ability in maintaining fault-free, safe driving. Practical Applications: The high risk of at-fault SCEs associated with in-cabin distraction should motivate the smart design of the interior and in-vehicle information system that requires less visual attention and manual effort.

Assessment of distracted pedestrian crossing behavior at midblock crosswalks

Risk of pedestrian-vehicle crashes increased with distraction of pedestrians at roadway crossings. Aims of the study included analysing distracted pedestrian crossing behavior, identifying factors that influence pedestrian crossing speed at a midblock crosswalk, and determining the influence of road cross-section (RCS) on pedestrian walking speed.Three cities in Oregon State in the USA were included in the study: Corvallis, Albany, and Eugene. A combination of digital video and researcher field notes were used to obtain the data at each site. A total of 1045 pedestrian crossings from 23 midblock crossings were observed and analysed to determine the association of distraction type, road cross-section, and other in situ factors with pedestrian walking speed. Data analysis was conducted in two stages. First, the effect of each distraction type (looking at a handheld device, talking on a cell phone, wearing headphones, walking in a pair, walking in a group, and other distractions) on the pedestrian walking speed was examined. The results showed that average walking speed was 4.8 ft./s (1.46 m/s). Pedestrians walking with headphones crossed more quickly (0.91 ft./s) (0.28 m/s) than those with no distractions (5.14 ft./s) (1.57 m/s). In addition, talking on a cell phone was not significantly correlated with walking speed. Moreover, the other four distraction types were associated with decreasing the walking speed by 0.29 ft./s (0.09 m/s) to 0.83 ft./s (0.25 m/s). Second, the influence of pedestrian distraction, crosswalk configuration, land use, compliance rate, and pedestrian demographics on the pedestrian walking speed were examined in this study. Findings indicated that distracted pedestrian in two road cross-sections would require more crossing time than an elderly pedestrian. Pedestrian safety is a key concern in transportation research, and improved understanding of the factors contributing to pedestrian fatalities could enable safer roadways to be designed.

Making intelligence telework work: mitigating distraction, maintaining focus

ABSTRACT This response to a series of earlier ‘Perspectives on Intelligence’ essays on intelligence telework adds to the conversation by first reiterating the benefits of working remotely, highlighting challenges – mainly different types of serious distraction – that could undermine telework, and offering suggestions for addressing those challenges.

Computer vision‐based recognition of driver distraction: A review

AbstractVehicle crash rates caused by distracted driving have been rising in recent years. Hence, safety while driving on roads is today a crucial concern across the world. Some of the reasons due to which drivers may lose attention include the use of mobile phones, speaking with passengers, and reaching behind to grab something while driving. There are various types of distractions, out of which we focus on manual ones based on the posture of the driver. This work presents a review on open problems and challenges concerning the vision‐based distraction recognition of drivers. Types of experimental environments are described; and image modalities, public and custom datasets and body parts inspected during distraction recognition are explored. Besides, a comparative review of different works on vision‐based recognition of driver's manual distractions and limitations for each dataset is presented. Main approaches of vision‐based manual distractive driving recognition can be categorized into conventional and deep learning methods. These approaches are compared and classified based on whether using temporal information or not. Finally, we give some suggestions for improvement, and look forward to future development directions of the vision‐based recognition of driver's manual distractions.

Effect of virtual reality distraction on pain and anxiety during infiltration anesthesia in pediatric patients: a randomized clinical trial

BackgroundDifferent distraction techniques have been used in dentistry and have shown great results in managing anxious pediatric patients specially during local anesthesia administration. One of the recently invented techniques is virtual reality. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of virtual reality distraction on anxiety and pain during buccal infiltration anesthesia in pediatric patients.MethodsHealthy, cooperative 6- to 12-year-old children requiring buccal infiltration anesthesia were randomly assigned to a test or control group. In the test group, local anesthesia was administered while the subjects were watching a cartoon video using virtual reality goggles. Subjects in the control group watched a cartoon video on a screen during the administration of local anesthesia. To assess anxiety in both groups, heart rate was recorded using a pulse oximeter at five time points: (1) once the subject sets on the dental chair as a baseline; (2) when video is on; (3) at topical anesthesia application; (4) during needle insertion; (5) after the administration of local anesthesia. The face, legs, activity, cry, consolability (FLACC) behavioral pain assessment scale and the Wong–Baker FACES pain rating scale were used to assess pain.ResultsA total of 50 subjects were included with a mean age of 8.4 ± 1.46 years. Twenty-nine (58.0%) of the subjects were females. The mean heart rate at all time points except baseline was significantly higher among the test group compared to the control group. Multiple regression analysis showed that younger subjects and females had higher mean FLACC behavioral pain assessment scale scores (P = 0.034 and P = 0.004, respectively) regardless of the distraction technique used. Younger subjects and subjects with higher baseline heart rate reported higher mean Wong–Baker FACES pain rating scale score (P = 0.031 and P = 0.010, respectively), controlling for all other variables.ConclusionFemale subjects and the younger age group were more likely to report higher pain scores during local anesthesia administration regardless of the type of distraction used.Trial registrationThe study was retrospectively registered in ClinicalTrials.gov with the identifier: NCT04483336 on 23/07/2020.

P.52 Quantity and type of social distractions in obstetric anaesthesia

P.52 Quantity and type of social distractions in obstetric anaesthesia

Distractive Tasks and the Influence of Driver Attributes

Driver distraction is a major problem nowadays, contributing to many deaths, injuries, and economic losses. Despite the effort that has been made to minimize these impacts, considering the technological evolution, distraction at the wheel has tended to increase. Not only tech-related tasks but every task that captures a driver’s attention has impacts on road safety. Moreover, driver behavior and characteristics are known to be heterogeneous, leading to a distinct driving performance, which is a challenge in the road safety perspective. This study aimed to capture the effects of drivers’ personal aspects and habits on their distraction behavior. Following a within-subjects approach, a convenience sample of 50 drivers was exposed to three unexpected events reproduced in a driving simulator. Drivers’ reactions were evaluated through three distinct models: a Lognormal Model to make analyze the visual distraction, a Binary Logit Model to explore the adopted type of reaction, and a Parametric Survival Model to study the reaction times. The research outcomes revealed that drivers’ behavior and perceived workload were distinct when they were engaged in specific secondary tasks and for distinct drivers’ personal attributes and habits. Age and type of distraction showed statistical significance regarding the visual behavior. Moreover, reaction times were consistently related to gender, BMI, sleep patterns, speed, habits while driving, and type of distraction. The habit of engaging in secondary tasks while driving resulted in a cumulative better performance.

Observation Study on Distracted Driving Behaviour in Shah Alam Area

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Distraction while driving among drivers is one of the factors which cause road accidents. Data from the Ministry of Transport Malaysia shows that accidents involving cars, vans, buses, lorries, 4-wheel drives and taxi drivers contribute to road accidents which involve 787,237 cases that is 82% from total cases in 2016. Distraction while driving is involving the lack of focus of a driver due to another task doing instead of driving. The distraction while driving includes mobile phone use, manipulating car navigation system devices or car's features, eating or drinking, interaction with passengers and smoking. In Malaysia, there is not enough data regarding driver distraction. For example, research from the Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS) only depends on the survey regarding driver distraction while driving. The objective of this research is to determine the portion of drivers in Shah Alam who involve in the form of distracting activities while driving. The method for this research is a set of questionnaires to survey the distraction influenced by the age of the drivers. Next, a method of a real-life observation by using a high definition camera from upper view. The collected data is to investigate the differences between gender and between peak and non-peak hours for distracted driving. The observation took place in three selected locations which is the major road that consists of three lanes in Seksyen 7, Seksyen 19 and Seksyen 21. It is obtained that 9.5% of drivers observed in Shah Alam are distracted while driving. Next, the male is more into smoking compared with female. There is a slight difference between the other types of distraction. Next, as in total, peak hour shows that drivers tend to be distracted more than a non-peak hour. As for gender, younger drivers tend to be distracted by mobile phones compared with older drivers.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

The frequency and effects of distractions in operating theatres.

Operating theatres (OTs) are complex environments where team members complete difficult tasks under stress. Distractions in these environments can lead to errors that compromise patient safety. A range of potential distractions exist in OTs and previous research suggests they are common. This study assesses the nature, frequency and impact of distracting events in the OT at a tertiary New Zealand hospital. Prospective observational study of the frequency, type and impact of OT distractions during a 3-month period. Two observational methods - the frequency of door openings and a validated tool - were used to categorize OT distractions for a range of acute and elective, paediatric and adult surgical procedures according to their cause and effect. There were 57 procedures (2037 intraoperative minutes) observed. During this time, 721 door openings and 1152 other distracting events were recorded. On average, either a door opening or other distracting event was recorded 56 times per hour of intraoperative time. The frequency of distractions did not vary in relation to acute versus elective or paediatric versus adult procedures but were more common in the morning. Communication unrelated to the case was the most common distracting event: these and equipment issues had the greatest effect on the entire surgical team, usually by causing some interruption to operative flow. Distractions in OTs were common, occurring nearly every minute. Most were trivial, but some had the potential to disrupt the operative procedure and result in patient harm. Reducing distractions in surgery could reduce patient harm and improve resource use.

Roadside evaluation of distracted driving – Driver limitations in recognizing traffic light transitions (REDD – LIGHT)

IntroductionDistracted driving is dangerous, widespread and has become one of the top concerns regarding traffic safety. The goals of the REDD – LIGHT study were to naturalistically determine the prevalence of distracted drivers at a red traffic light, as well as to determine the prevalence of specific distractions and their impact on the drivers’ reaction to traffic light transition. MethodsWe observed the drivers of the first two passenger motor vehicles stopped at a red traffic light. The observational variables were divided into three general groups: demographic variables, distractions (in-vehicle, outer-vehicle, and mobile phones), and reaction to traffic light transition. Vehicles falling behind the full length of a car or failing to proceed for more than 2 s at the traffic light transition from red to green were classified as delayed. ResultsOf the 1008 drivers in this study, 608 (60.3%) were observed to be distracted at the red light. In-vehicle distractions were the most common type of distraction (44.8%, n=452), while mobile phone-related distractions were 7.4% (n=75). A total of 126 (12.5%) drivers were delayed at the light transition, and 111 (88.1%) of these drivers were distracted. We identified seven specific distractions (talking on a handheld device, manipulating a handheld device, in-vehicle devices, eating/drinking, reaching, non-specific and specific outer-vehicle distractions) as significantly associated with the delay to the light transition. ConclusionThree out of five drivers engaged in distracted driving when stopped at a traffic light. In addition, approximately nine out of ten delayed drivers were distracted, clearly demonstrating the negative effects of distractions on the driver's situational awareness. These figures are astonishingly high and massively concerning, considering that the data was acquired from a single red light stop along the driver's trip.

Associations between social drinking events and pedestrian behavior - An observational study

IntroductionPedestrian injuries are important public health and traffic safety issues. In recent years, the problem is worsening and no single cause has been identified. To examine this tragic phenomenon, it is necessary to learn more about the behaviors people engage in while walking, where they walk, and how often they walk. MethodsA naturalistic observational study was conducted using two data collection tools to discern pedestrian road crossing behavior and intersection characteristics surrounding three social drinking venues in Washington, DC. Pedestrian demographic variables and unsafe pedestrian behaviors such as walking against pedestrian crossing signals, walking outside of crosswalk, distraction, and probable impairment were gathered. Descriptive statistics, chi-square analysis, and logistic regression were performed using SAS Statistical Software to identify trends among unsafe behaviors. ResultsThere were 1,101 pedestrians observed. The most prevalent risky road crossing behavior was walking against the pedestrian crossing signal (n = 353, 32%), followed by distraction (n = 182, 17%) and walking outside of the crosswalk (n = 160, 15%). There were 574 (52%) pedestrians who exhibited at least one unsafe road crossing behavior. Observation site location was statistically significant with all three road crossing behaviors, while sex was not statistically significant with any of the behaviors. Three of the seven crosswalks observed produced statistically significant results when predicting unsafe road crossing behaviors in logistic regression at the alpha level of 0.05. Direction of pedestrian travel produced statistically significant results in the same logistic regression model (p = .003). ConclusionsThis study reinforces the prevalence of unsafe road crossing behaviors and identifies several opportunities for future research by examining environmental influences of intersection characteristics and investigating types of distraction and alcohol impairment. In addition, new and innovative interventions aimed specifically at pedestrian's behavior when crossing the road using a public health approach may be helpful.

Effect of the use of an iPad on the attention span of a child with Smith Magenis Syndrome: A single case study.

To assess the effectiveness of iPad use on the attention span of a child with Smith Magenis Syndrome (n = 1), compared to attention span while working on the same tasks manually. An AB design with a baseline and an intervention phase was used. Three manual tasks were chosen for the baseline, which matched the participant's intellectual age by the Early Intervention Method: a jigsaw puzzle (six pieces), a shape sorter, and matching pictures. These same tasks were performed on an iPad during the intervention phase. Six baseline and nine intervention phase films were included in the analysis. The 15 films were independently scored twice by two observers: once to observe the types of distractions that occurred (such as standing up from the chair, calling the teacher, or turning around on the chair), and a second time to measure the effective working time. iPad use led to a 45% decrease in the number of total distractions. The effective working time improved by 8% and showed a more consistent range compared to working on tasksbmanually. While task enjoyment was not directly measured, the observers and teachers agreed that working on the iPad appeared to be more enjoyable. In this single case study the participant showed that in his case iPad use can be effective in decreasing his distractions and therefore can improve his attention span. Enjoyment was higher while working with the iPad than performing tasks manually. This technology could therefore create more learning engagement for the participant, which could positively impact his behavior. Further research into iPad implementation for children with intellectual disabilities, poor fine motor skills, and/or attention deficits is needed.