Types Of Bombs Research Articles

Explosive Ordnance Detection in Areas Designated for Mining

Nowadays, mining is becoming increasingly valued, as mines of various types provide a large part of the raw materials needed for construction. In order to ensure a continuous supply of extraction and raw materials, new areas need to be identified and opened up. However, some of these new areas may contain security risks such as explosive remnants of war. If we look back to the events of the World War II, there was perhaps no area in Europe that was not affected by the preparation or execution of some act of war. The warring parties deployed a full arsenal of weapons, some of which still pose a threat today. The various types of bombs, mines, projectiles and grenades were only partially operational. Explosive devices that were simply left behind or unexploded were buried beneath the surface, and continue to pose a growing threat to this day (almost eight decades later). The dismantling and disposal of the left-behind and often very poorly recovered explosive devices has been ongoing ever since. The problems of finding explosive devices and munitions tend to occur in areas where there has been no previous investment, construction or earthworks.

What controls the formation of vulcanian bombs? A case study from the 1 February 2014 eruption of Tungurahua (Ecuador)

Vulcanian eruptions are very common at many volcanoes around the world that erupt intermediate to silicic magmas. This type of eruption generates a wide variability of bombs and blocks preserving information onto the conduit processes that strongly control the dynamics of these events. After 84 years of repose, a new cycle of eruptive activity of Tungurahua volcano (Ecuador) started in October 1999, consisting of recurrent low-to-moderate explosive phases, which included sporadic stronger Strombolian to sub-Plinian pulses, as well as Vulcanian outbursts. The 1 February 2014 eruption was one of the most important Vulcanian events and was characterized by highly energetic explosions resulting from a plug conduit failure that generated a ∼ 9 km-high eruptive column and fallback pyroclastic density currents. Four different types of blocks and bombs were found in the deposits of the pyroclastic density currents: dense fragments (DB), breadcrust bombs (BCB), cauliflower bombs (CFB) and foliated, banded bombs (FB). All the different types of bombs have homogenous andesitic bulk-rock compositions but different, highly evolved matrix glass compositions ranging from rhyolitic for BCB to dacitic for CFB and DB, suggesting the occurrence of contrasting shallow crystallization processes within the conduit. The wide variability of the bombs in terms of patterns of surface cracks, external morphologies, internal density and vesicularity gradients records different conditions of formation from a same magma composition.The combination of morphological measurements, compositional data and textural analysis allow us (i) to infer the pre-eruption physical and rheological state of the conduit plug, (ii) to reconstruct the short-scale lateral and vertical gradients characterizing the plug, and (iii) to clarify the specific mechanism controlling the formation conditions of CFB, still poorly defined in the literature.

Empirical Attenuation Law for Air Blast Waves Due to the Detonation of Explosives Outdoors

The detonation of explosives in the open air was studied, analyzing different amounts of explosives detonated at different distances, monitoring the overpressure or air blast wave generated with the aim of determining a model, which allows to establish safety zones. A series of tests measuring the air wave with different loads and sensors placed at various distances from the origin of the explosion were carried out. The work was focused on designing full-scale trials that allowed to develop a predictive empirical method based on the calculation model of the equivalent mass of TNT. A total of 18 different gelatinous dynamite charges, placing the sensor at six different distances from the origin of the explosion, produced a total of 90 tests measuring the air wave produced by the detonation of gelatinous dynamite. Later, the outdoor detonation of 10 TNT explosive charges was analyzed to extend the model and improve its scope. With all this, it has been possible to develop a predictive model that allows assessing the overpressure generated by the detonation of a TNT-equivalent explosive charge. The results are useful to predict the air blast wave in common open-air blasts, such as those carried out with shaped charges to demolish metallic structures. On the other hand, the results are also useful to determine the air blast wave overpressure in the case of large explosive charges detonated in the open air, such as accidental explosive detonation or terrorist bombs. It is important to point out the relevance of the results achieved after the detonation of large explosive charges (more than 80 kg) simulating a type of bomb frequently used by terrorists. Reproducing the explosion on a real scale, the results are fully representative of the overpressure produced by an explosion of these characteristics without the need of extrapolating the results of tests with small loads. In addition, the detonation was carried out with TNT, which can serve as a standard to compare with any other type of explosive.

High explosive unexploded ordnance neutralization - Tallboy air bomb case study

On October 13, 2020, on the fairway connecting the Polish Baltic ports of Świnoujście and Szczecin, an underwater hazardous object of historical origin in the form of the British deep penetration bomb Tallboy dropped during the bombing of the German cruiser "Lützow" in April 1945 was neutralized successfully. It is believed to be the first underwater action concerning this type of bomb, which has previously been neutralized on land in Europe (Germany, one confirmed case). The preparation of the operation, on an unprecedented scale at national, European and global level, took one year and included a series of projects related to clearing the space around the bomb from other identified UXO objects, international consultations, historical analyses, determination of the risk to residents and critical infrastructure in the event of an explosion of the bomb containing approximately 2400 kg of the TORPEX explosive (with an increased force equivalent to almost 3600 kg of TNT). The object was neutralized on spot at the depth of 12 m, near a ferry crossing, by specialists from the 41st Navy EOD Team from the 12th MCM Squadron (8th Coastal Defence Flotilla), using the Low Order Deflagration technique (underwater deflagration method). In the case discussed, there was an accumulation of unfavourable conditions which practically excluded the use of blow-in-situ explosive methods (BIP), as well as the extraction of the object and its transport to a military ground. After a partial deflagration of the explosive, the explosive was detonated (DDT). Estimates indicate that the deflagration level reached between 55 and 60%, which significantly reduced the strength and effects of the underwater explosion.

Method for organically bound tritium analysis from sediment using a combustion bomb

The method consisted in combustion, using a Parr bomb type 1121, of a sediment - tritium free promoter mixture. The proper ratio sediment to promoter in our experiments was between 1:3 and 1:2, higher ratio resulting in unreliable results, due to incomplete combustion of the sample. The described method was used to measure the estuarine sediment sample from the 2nd International OBT Intercomparison Exercise, the average reported value being 163±12Bqkg−1 dry matter (k=2).

Second World War bomb craters and the archaeology of Allied air attacks in the forests of the Normandie-Maine National Park, NW France

Well-preserved bomb craters in the forests of central Normandy, NW France, constitute archaeological legacies of combat inland from the D-Day beachheads that greatly extend the inventory of Second World War conflict landscapes in northwest Europe. Field survey and analysis of German and Allied documents demonstrates that bombscapes in the Forêt domaniale des Andaines and Forêt domaniale d'Ecouves reflect US Ninth Army Air Force attacks on a German fuel depot and radar installation, respectively, during June-August, 1944. One hundred and thirty-six craters are mapped, described and linked to specific air raids, bomb types and, for one raid on the 13th June, six specific participating aircraft and aircrews. These landscapes echo the impact of widespread tactical bombing against targets close to civilian population centers, and in some cases employing civilian and PoW labor. They are therefore well-placed to contribute to wider heritage narratives around the non-combatant experience of aerial warfare in WWII.

Recovery of locked-up uranium in slag disc by co-melting in magnesio-thermic reduction

Magnesio-thermic Reduction (MTR) of Uranium tetra Fluoride (UF4) is one of the main industrial methods for producing commercial pure uranium metal in massive form. Nuclear grade natural Uranium (U) metal ingots are produced regularly in UED, BARC following MTR route for fuelling research reactors in BARC. This is a bomb type reaction and is represented by $$UF_4 + 2Mg = U + 2MgF_{2 - } (\Delta H^ \circ _{298} = - 83.5 Kcal/gm mole)$$ Small excess of magnesium is required to achieve maximum yield. This thermite type reduction is carried out in a closed reaction vessel, popularly known as MTR reactor, lined with magnesium fluoride powder. MTR reactors are made of boiler quality steel. Use of MgF2, a reaction by-product, as lining material completely eliminates the chance of foreign element contamination. This lining of MgF2 not only prevents direct contact of the molten metal and slag with the reaction vessel but also acts as an insulating material immediately after firing and holds the hot molten mass for longer period, thereby facilitating adequate metal-slag separation. This is a batch process and stoichiometric quantity of UF4 and Mg chips are blended and charged inside the lined reactor. Once the charging is over, the surface is covered with fine MgF2 powder and sealed by fixing a lid. This sealed reactor is then heated inside an electric furnace at a predefined heating schedule for the reduction to take place. The initiation of reaction is called ‘Firing”.

Uncertainties in Supernova Yields. I. One‐dimensional Explosions

Theoretical nucleosynthetic yields from supernovae are sensitive to both the details of the progenitor star and the explosion calculation. We attempt to comprehensively identify the sources of uncertainties in these yields. In this paper we concentrate on the variations in yields from a single progenitor arising from common 1-dimensional methods of approximating a supernova explosion. Subsequent papers will examine 3-dimensional effects in the explosion and the progenitor, and trends in mass and composition. For the 1-dimensional explosions we find that both elemental and isotopic yields for Si and heavier elements are a sensitive function of explosion energy. Also, piston-driven and thermal bomb type explosions have different yields for the same explosion energy. Yields derived from 1-dimensional explosions are non-unique.

Shot in the dark [nuclear weapon testing

This paper discusses the future of the National Ignition Facility (NIF) located in Livermore, CA, amid criticisms about whether it can achieve its stated scientific goals and whether such a money-draining project was really necessary in the first place. Envisioned as an ideal site for nuclear weapons testing, the NIF could produce fusion in controlled conditions that would allow weapons specialists to simulate the detonation of different types of bombs to help them assess the status of aging atomic stockpiles without conducting risky test explosions that international law is trying to ban. A major source of concern among critics is the question of whether a fusion reaction that occurs inside a capsule smaller than a fingernail can provide an accurate indication of how a full-size nuclear weapon would detonate. NIF scientists are confident, however, that applying computer-generated formulas to their experimental data can account for such scale differences.

Hiroshima Bomb’s Explosive Yield Less than Reported

Paul Guinnessy reports that the explosive yield of the Hiroshima bomb was 20 kT (Physics Today, August 2002, page 23). However, that value is at variance with the most reliable ones in the open literature, in which one typically sees values of 12.5 to 15 kT. 1 1. L. Badash, Scientists and the Development of Nuclear Weapons, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, N.J. (1995), p. 54 S. Hoddeson et al. , Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos during the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945, Cambridge U. Press, New York (1993), p. 392 R. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Simon & Schuster, New York (1986), p. 711. The comprehensive calculation by John Malik gives the value of 15 kT, with an error of 20%. 2 2. J. Malik, The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Nuclear Explosions, technical rep. no. LA-8819, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, N. Mex. (September 1985). The 20-kT value was initially given by President Harry S. Truman in August 1945. Physicists at Los Alamos knew it was an overestimate that was based, perhaps, on information Truman had from the Trinity test. But the Trinity test data were for a different type of bomb—a plutonium implosion device, not the uranium gun-type model that was used on Hiroshima.REFERENCESSection:ChooseTop of pageREFERENCES <<1. L. Badash, Scientists and the Development of Nuclear Weapons, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, N.J. (1995), p. 54 , Google Scholar S. Hoddeson et al. , Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos during the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945, Cambridge U. Press, New York (1993), p. 392 , Google ScholarCrossref R. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Simon & Schuster, New York (1986), p. 711. , Google Scholar2. J. Malik, The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Nuclear Explosions, technical rep. no. LA-8819, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, N. Mex. (September 1985). Google ScholarCrossref© 2003 American Institute of Physics.

The bomb explosion in Myyrmanni, Finland 2002

On the evening of 11 October 2002, a 19-year-old student detonated a home-made bomb inside the Myyrmanni shopping mall, located in the city of Vanda (Vantaa) just north of Helsinki, Finland. The device was an anti-personnel type of bomb (equal to 2-3 kg of trotyl with a covering of steel and copper pellets) made from easily available materials and from instructions available over the Internet. It was hidden in a backpack and detonated in the middle of a crowd of people who were watching a clown's performance. Five people were killed instantly, two died later, and more than 160 persons were injured.The management of the incident caused a major strain on the Emergency Medical Services as well as the hospitals within Helsinki. This report discusses weaknesses in the command and control system (mainly from communication failures) ways to improve a coordinated response in the future.

Suitability of UK bituminous and Spanish lignitous coals, and their blends for two stage liquefaction

Liquefaction experiments were carried out in spinning/falling basket autoclaves using samples of Kellingly (UK) and Samca (Spain) coals, and a process derived recycle solvent (PDRS). Hydrocracking experiments were carried out in a bomb type autoclave using sulphided NiMo catalyst. For the dissolution experiments with the individual coals, the influence of temperature 380, 400 and 420°C, and time 1 or 2 h was considered. For hydrocracking, preliminary experiments were carried out with a Kellingly coal liquid to establish appropriate reaction conditions for the hydrocracking of Kellingly and Samca coal liquid blends. There was some evidence of synergistic activity for conversion to dichloromethane (DCM) soluble material and antagonistic behaviour for conversion to tetrahydrofuran soluble/DCM insoluble material for dissolution of the coal blends, but hydrocracking of the coal liquid blends resulted in additive behaviour. For each of the coals, the extent of dissolution correlated with the extent of desulphurisation. The sulphur contents of the solid residues from dissolution tended to increase with the temperature of dissolution, but their H:C ratios decreased and their calorific values were independent.

High Resolution High-Pressure Magnetometer Based on the Ice Bomb Incorporated into Commercial SQUID Measuring System.

Simple high-pressure apparatus of the ice bomb type has been incorporated into commercial SQUID measuring system (Quantum Design MPMS). Such obtained high-resolution high-pressure magnetometer allows a static magnetization of different materials of interest, including the fragile and small single crystal specimens of organic materials, to be measured in a wide range of working temperatures (from 1. 7 to∼250 K), applied fields (from ∼0. 001 Oe up to 70 kOe, if the MPMS7 system is employed) and pressures (from ∼0. 1 to ∼2 kbar).

Forcing of Tree Peony for Late December Flowering Using Chinese Cultivars.

Forced flowering of Chinese tree peony cultivars was tested in comparison with Japanese cultivars. All the Chinese cultivars flowered in late December as early as one of the earliest flowering Japanese cultivars. One of the most popular Japanese cultivars flowered late in January. Flower harvest rate was over 80% in all the cultivars except one Chinese cultivar in which flower buds blasted during forcing. Some Chinese cultivars produced crown or bomb type flowers which were rarely found in Japanese cultivars. All the Chinese cultivars had short stems, suggesting that they were suitable for pot flowers rather than cut flowers.

Explosion-related deaths in Sweden — A forensic-pathologic and criminalistic study

All cases of death caused by explosions of explosive solids, fluids and gases in Swenden during the 6-year period 1979–1984 were analyzed. Among the total of 61 fatalities 33 (54%) were due to accidents ( 2 3 of them occupational and 1 3 miscellaneous accidents), 25 (41%) were suicides, and only 3 (5%) were associated with terrorist activity. About one half of the occupational accidents were caused by deficient safety devices or defective equipment, while the other half was due to transgression of regulations. All suicides were males, relatively elderly, the majority of them burdened with somatic and mental diseases, alcoholism, social or economical problems, most of them being familiar with explosives. The anatomical localization of suicidal explosive injuries was regular and symmetric, while the accidental and terrorist injuries showed great variations. The terrorist-associated deaths had common features different from all other death cases, strongly suggesting the same type of bomb and the same terrorist group. Explosives caused only superficial burns or singes. Symmetric hemorrhages of the vocal folds and fracture of the laryngeal skeleton were found, as well as ruptures of trachea and lungs. When not ruptured, the lungs showed to different types of injury: hyperinflation, probably due to the blast-induced barotrauma to the respiratory passages, or lung contusions. In cases of suspected terrorist explosions close collaboration between the forensic pathologists and police investigators is mandatory since the bodies of victims protect parts of the bomb from fire or from being spread over a larger area and thus constitute a part of the crime scene.

Lesions of human bronchial tract caused by incendiary bombs containing phosphorus.

THE PURPOSE of this paper is to investigate and answer the question whether gases (oxides) of phosphorus cause lesions of the human bronchial tract. In order to investigate this subject guinea pigs were used for the experiment. A number of them were exposed to the oxides of burning phosphorus in order to confirm certain clinical suspicions that arose from the actual subjection of human beings to the toxic effects of phosphorus bombs. This kind of research is of practical value not only to actual combat troops but also to civilians far from the battle zone, since nations in modern warfare use phosphorus bombs extensively. This type of bomb was used with considerable success during World War II and in Korea. According to the modern conception of warfare, civilians are also exposed to the effects of phosphorus bombs. As such, civilians have the right to know how a phosphorus bomb acts

An acrylic spray used as a substitute for cover glasses.

It has been found that a plastic spray (“Krylon”, manufactured by Krylon, Inc., 2601 Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pa.) is suitable as a covering medium for stained, paraffin-embedded tissue sections. The material is supplied in an aerosol bomb type dispenser. The technic and advantages of using a plastic spray to replace both the usual mounting medium and cover glass are described below.

THE MEDICAL SEQUELAE OF THE ATOMIC BOMB EXPLOSION

The Army and Navy medical missions which investigated the results of the explosion of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, studied many aspects of the situation. In this article it will be impossible to review all the studies that were made; only two major subjects will be considered. The two most impressive features of the new type of bomb are: (1) the tremendous toll of casualties and (2) the syndrome of injury due to large amounts of gamma radiation. In the bombed cities the Air Raid Defense authorities and the surviving members of the medical profession were confronted with an extremely large relief and rescue problem. The magnitude of their task is indicated by the following estimates (table 1): Of the total number of casualties, 120,000 in Hiroshima and 65,000 in Nagasaki, not all were in need of immediate medical care. In each city about one sixth of

James Alfred Ewing Medal: Award to Mr. B. N. Wallis

ON the joint recommendation of the presidents of the Royal Society and the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers has awarded the James Alfred Ewing Medal for 1944 to Mr. B. N. Wallis. The Medal is awarded annually for specially meritorious contributions to the science of engineering in the field of research. Mr. Wallis is chief of aeronautical research and development to Vickers-Armstrongs, Ltd. He invented and designed the special type of bomb used for the destruction of the Moehne and Eder Dams in Germany in 1943, and designed the Tallboy and 10-ton bombs used by the R.A.F. He was responsible for the design and construction of the airship R. 100. Since the airship programme was abandoned, he has been engaged in the design and development of geodetic construction to enable the production of long-range load-carrying aircraft, as exemplified in the production, in collaboration with Mr. R. K. Pierson, of the "Wellesley" type monoplane, which holds the world's non-stop record of 7,162 miles made in 1938. Geodetic construction has been used in the well-known "Wellington" bomber and the "Warwick".

Proneness to Damage of Plant through Enemy Action

The aim of the paper is to draw attention to the facts which underlie the rapid approximate estimation of damage to plant through enemy action. Different items of plant will be affected to a greater or lesser extent depending upon their type and the conditions to which they have been exposed. Thus, a smith's anvil, at the one extreme, would be but slightly damaged by blast, fire, collapse of the building, falling debris, or flooding, if a direct hit or persistent fire was excluded. At the other extreme, delicate electrical apparatus would suffer severely if exposed to any of these conditions. In the case of the anvil the “damage proneness number” (d.p.n.) is likely to be between the limits of 0 and 5, whilst that of the latter may be between 80 and 100 in “average” cases where a direct hit or persistent fire did not take place. Thus all plant can be classified and given probable limits beforehand of the extent of damage, and it would remain for the trained observer to fix the damage proneness number which in exceptional cases might be outside the average limits. Expressed as a percentage of the value of the item, the damage proneness number would indicate the amount of the loss involved; the sum of the amounts of the individual losses would give the total approximate loss. The extent of the damage is affected also by the protection given by the building, the position of the item within the building, and by the type of bomb and its point of impact in relation to the item.