Types Of Clay Minerals Research Articles

Clay minerals in an oil-sand deposit and their effect on oil-bearing properties

ABSTRACTThe current research on the characteristics of clay minerals in oil-sand reservoirs of China is still in its infancy. The burial depth of oil sands in the western slope of the Songliao basin is relatively shallow, and the reservoir contains clay minerals. Scanning electron microscope observations and X-ray diffraction analysis were used to test the chemical composition and characteristics of clay minerals. Comprehensive analysis and further research found that the clay mineral content of the oil-sand reservoir was relatively low and the clay minerals belonged to the illite–montmorillonite mixed-layer, composed of montmorillonite and illite, with occasional kaolinite, but no chlorite. The oil-bearing property of the oil-sand reservoir was consistent with the type of clay mineral found. The reservoir containing a mixed layer of illite–montmorillonite has a relatively good oil-bearing potential, and the oil content ranged from 3.80% to 16.17%.

Vermiculite/poly(lactic acid) composites: Effect of nature of vermiculite on hydrolytic degradation in alkaline medium

Unmodified and different organomodified vermiculites were used for the preparation of poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) composites via melt mixing. The effect of the clay mineral surface modification, the type of organic modifier of the vermiculite and sample thickness on the degradation of PLLA in alkaline medium at 37°C was studied. The degradation was evaluated by analyzing mass loss, pH, molecular weights, and morphological changes. Alkaline hydrolysis of PLLA was accelerated by the presence of clay mineral and the degradation rate was very much dependent on type of clay mineral and state of dispersion. Morphological changes suggested that the erosion mechanism of polymer matrix occurred at the film surfaces and started at the interface of polymer and clay minerals. The results presented here show that the hydrolytic degradation of PLLA can be controlled through the preparation of nanocomposites introducing the appropriate organomodified nanoclay mineral.

Dependence of Tensile Bending Strength of Rammed Earth on Used Clay Composition and Amount of Mixture Water

Clay is a traditional construction material which has got to background with introduction of modern materials to building practice. There is not proper material available for clay constructions design due to a lack of proper examination of its mechanical properties. This article focuses on tensile bending strength of rammed earth. The mechanical properties depend on the amount of mixture water and on the amount and type of clay minerals. The clay minerals play role of the binder similarly like a cement in concrete. This paper is focused on the tensile bending strength and its dependence on the composition and quantity of clay mineral and its dependence on the amount of mixture water. Five earth mixtures were tested. Mechanical properties were examined on small test bodies made of these mixtures. The mechanical properties of the five mixtures are compared at the end of the paper.

Characteristics and quality of reservoir sediments, Mujib Dam, Central Jordan, as a case study.

This paper focuses on characterizing the current status of physiochemical properties of Mujib Dam sediments. Five types of granulometric textural facies were observed for the bottom sediments of Mujib reservoir bed; these are clayey facies, clayey-silt facies, sand-silt-clay facies, sand facies, and granule facies. This average grain size will likely play a vital role in adsorption-desorption of the majority trace metals to the reservoir lake. Other sediment parameters including the total averages were 5.9% (total organic matter (TOM)), 7.5 (pH), 25.8% (CaCO3), and 88.0meq/100g (cation exchange capacity), with dominant mineralogical constituents of quartz, calcite, dolomite, and minor feldspar and with variability in clay mineral types. The vast majority of trace metals in sediment exhibited values in the range or near the upper limit of the normal worldwide soil ranges. TOM and grain size of sediment are major factors governing the trace metal concentrations. The calculated geoaccumulation index (I geo) and enrichment factor (EF) of metals in sediments of Mujib Dam were ranked as follows: cadmium (Cd)>copper (Cu)>zinc (Zn)>lead (Pb)>cobalt (Co)>iron (Fe)>chromium (Cr)>nickel (Ni)> manganese (Mn)>Sr based on the I geo and Cd>Zn>Pb>Co>Cr>Cu>Sr>Ni>Mn according to the EF values. The estimated percentage loss in volumetric capacity of the reservoir due to sedimentation was 1.55% per year, indicating that the sediment currently occupied 18.63% of the original reservoir storage capacity. The maximum life span of reservoir is about 64.46years.

Remediation of Heavy Metal-Polluted Agricultural Soils Using Clay Minerals: A Review

Heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils poses risks and hazards to humans. The remediation of heavy metal-polluted soils has become a hot topic in environmental science and engineering. In this review, the application of clay minerals for the remediation of heavy metal-polluted agricultural soils is summarized, in terms of their remediation effects and mechanisms, influencing factors, and future focus. Typical clay minerals, natural sepiolite, palygorskite, and bentonite, have been widely utilized for the in-situ immobilization of heavy metals in soils, especially Cd-polluted paddy soils and wastewater-irrigated farmland soils. Clay minerals are able to increase soil pH, decrease the chemical-extractable fractions and bioavailability of heavy metals in soils, and reduce the heavy metal contents in edible parts of plants. The immobilization effects have been confirmed in field-scale demonstrations and pot trials. Clay minerals can improve the environmental quality of soils and alleviate the hazards of heavy metals to plants. As main factors affecting the immobilization effects, the pH and water condition of soils have drawn academic attention. The remediation mechanisms mainly include liming, precipitation, and sorption effects. However, the molecular mechanisms of microscopic immobilization are unclear. Future studies should focus on the long-term stability and improvement of clay minerals in order to obtain a better remediation effect.

Degradation of 1, 4-dioxane by hydroxyl radicals produced from clay minerals

1,4-Dioxane is causing a general concern as an emerging contaminant in groundwater environment. Traditional remediation methods can be either inefficient or costly. In this study, we present a cost effective method for possible in situ remediation of 1,4-dioxane. Hydroxyl radicals (OH) produced from oxygenation of structural Fe(II) in ferruginous clay minerals significantly degraded high concentrations of 1,4-dioxane (up to 400μmol/L) within 120h under circumneutral pH and dark condition. The amount of 1,4-dioxane degradation was positively correlated with the amount of OH. The major degradation product of 1,4-dioxane was formic acid. Different clay mineral types, initial Fe(II) concentration, and buffer composition all affected OH production and 1,4-dioxane degradation efficiency. Nontronite, an iron-rich smectite, was a reusable and effective material for sustainable production of OH and 1,4-dioxane degradation, through regeneration of Fe(II) either biologically or chemically. The non-selectivity and strong oxidative power of OH make it a promising agent for remediating various kinds of organic contaminants in aqueous environment.

Mineralogical Compositions of Some Indian Expansive Soils and Their Influence on Swelling Properties

Mineralogical characteristics of nine Indian expansive soils were examined using the X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. Interpretation of diffraction patterns confirmed the presence of major non-clay minerals (quartz and calcite) and clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite/smectite) in these expansive soils. In addition, the values of montmorillonite content (MC) in these soils have been collected from the literature and correlated with swelling properties such as swelling potential (S) and swelling pressure (S p ). A critical examination of the X-ray diffraction patterns that have been established on different specimens clearly shows the natural variability in their mineralogical compositions, indicating that the swelling properties of an expansive soil get strongly affected by the type of clay mineral and its content. The relationship between swelling parameters (i.e., S, S p ) and MC was found to be linear in nature. Interestingly, the greater influence of MC is noticed on the swelling pressure than on the swelling potential.

MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION AND FABRIC AS RELATED TO THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF THE FINE – GRAINED PLIO-PLEISTOCENE SEDIMENTS OF ACHAIA, GREECE

The fine grained sediments of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits of Achaia have been distinguished into two geotechnical units, stratigraphically successive, the Upper and the Lower one. A number of tests were performed in samples from both units in order to determine their mineralogical composition and fabric, as well as their CaCO3 content. From these it is shown that the two units present main differences in mineralogical composition, type and percentage of clay minerals, concretion ratio and calcium carbonate content, which directly affect their mechanical behavior in construction of technical works.

Development of antibacterial activity and corrosion resistance properties of electrodeposition of mineralized hydroxyapatite coated on titanium alloy for biomedical applications

Titanium and its alloy are potential biocompatible implant materials, due to their imposing biological properties. Hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, HAP], is a principal inorganic constituent of bone, teeth and it is the most suitable nontoxic biocompatible material. Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) are a type of natural alumino-silicate clay mineral. To improve the anticorrosion protection properties of HNT, it is deposited on Titanium alloy. The Halloysite Nanotube-Cerium substituted Hydroxyapatite (HNT-Ce-HAP) composite was electrodeposited on Ti alloy using the electro deposition process as a bioactive coating with improved antibacterial activity and anti-corrosion stability in simulated body fluid. The formation of HNT-mHAP composite coating was characterization using FT-IR, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Contact angle, (SEM-EDX) scanning electron microscopy. The antibacterial activity of the as-coated HNT-Ce-HAP particles was evaluated against two pathogen bacterial strains. The HNT-mHAP composite coated Ti6Al4V was analyzed towards human osteoblast (HOS MC3T3-E1 cells) cells using MTT assay. Thus, the as- coated HNT-Ce-HAP composite serves as a better candidate for biomedical applications with good anticorrosion, antibacterial properties and with bone bonding ability.

Influencia de la mineralogía de arcillas, textura y contenido de carbono orgánico sobre el índice de friabilidad de suelos cultivados con caña de azúcar

La friabilidad es una propiedad física esencial en el manejo mecánico del suelo y su comportamiento está asociado a la naturaleza de otras propiedades edáficas; que requiere ser estudiada de manera integral con diferentes propiedades mineralógicas, físicas y químicas. Se evaluó el efecto del dominio de los minerales arcillosos tipo 1:1 (caolinitas) y 2:1 (esmectitas y vermiculitas), la textura y el contenido de carbono orgánico (CO), sobre el índice de friabilidad (IF) de suelos cultivados con caña de azúcar. El IF se determinó por el método del coeficiente de variación, a partir del límite inferior del intervalo de confianza (IFi). Se utilizaron 7280 agregados de los horizontes Ap y A1, tomados en 18 fincas localizadas en el Valle Geográfico del Río Cauca, Colombia. Se determinó la mineralogía de la fracción arcilla a partir de difracción de rayos X, la distribución granulométrica por el método de la pipeta y el contenido de CO por el método de Walkley & Black. El análisis estadístico se realizó a partir de un enfoque descriptivo e inferencial, univariante y multivariante. No se encontró efecto significativo de la dominancia de arcillas 1:1 y 2:1 sobre la variable respuesta IFi; sin embargo, de manera descriptiva se observaron valores más altos deI IFi en suelos con dominio de arcillas 1:1. No se encontró efecto significativo atribuible a las fracciones de arcilla y limo total (FaT y FLT) sobre el IFi de los suelos, por el contrario, la fracción arena total (FAT) y el contenido de CO presentaron efecto altamente significativo en el IFi, con valores más altos del IFi en los suelos con mayores contenidos de CO y menores contenidos de la FAT.

Contact angles at the water–air interface of hydrocarbon-contaminated soils and clay minerals

Contact angles at the water–air interface have been measured for triturated preparations of clays and soils in order to assess changes in their hydrophobic properties under the effect of oil hydrocarbons. Tasks have been to determine the dynamics of contact angle under soil wetting conditions and to reveal the effect of chemical removal of organic matter from soils on the hydrophilicity of preparations. The potentialities of static and dynamic drop tests for assessing the hydrophilic–hydrophobic properties of soils have been estimated. Clays (kaolinite, gumbrine, and argillite) have been investigated, as well as plow horizons of soils from the Republic of Tatarstan: heavy loamy leached chernozem, medium loamy dark gray forest soil, and light loamy soddy-calcareous soil. The soils have been contaminated with raw oil and kerosene at rates of 0.1–3 wt %. In the uncontaminated and contaminated chernozem, capillary water capacity has been maintained for 250 days. The contact angles have been found to depend on the degree of dispersion of powdered preparation, the main type of clay minerals in the soil, the presence and amount of oxidation-resistant soil organic matter, and the soil–water contact time. Characteristic parameters of mathematical models for drop behavior on triturated preparations have been calculated. Contamination with hydrocarbons has resulted in a reliable increase in the contact angles of soil preparations. The hydrophobization of soil surface in chernozem is more active than in soils poorer in organic matter. The complete restoration of the hydrophilic properties of soils after hydrocarbon contamination is due to the oxidation of easily oxidizable organic matter at the low content of humus, or to wetting during several months in the absence of the mazut fraction.

Effect of Structural Type of Clay Minerals on Physical Properties of Mountainous Grassland Soils

Soil amendment, especially addition of clay minerals, has been widely conducted to improve the physical and chemical properties of cultivated soils. However, there are no systematic studies on the effects of the structural type of clay minerals added. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of structural type of clay minerals on physical properties of soils. Two experimental soils, layer-dominant and granule-dominant ones, were mixed with either a layer-type smectite or a granule-type zeolite at a level of 2.0 wt%. It was observed that water permeability of soils was decreased by smectite whereas not significantly changed by zeolite. This effect was much greater in layered clay-dominant soil than in granular clay-dominant soil. Our results clearly indicated that the relationship of structural type between a soil and an amendment plays a decisive role in the soil properties. Therefore, it is highly recommended that the structural types of both soil and amendment be taken into consideration for soil amendment by clay minerals.Simplified model of soil pores depending on structural type of clay minerals.

Influence of gradation and proportion of sand on stress–strain behavior of clay–sand mixtures

To investigate the influence of proportion of sand as well as its gradation on the undrained strength behavior of soils, undrained tests on statically compacted specimens of clay–sand mixtures were carried, with two extreme clay minerals, namely commercially available kaolinite and bentonite mixed with specimens of three grades of sand fractions, and also varying their proportion from 10 to 80%. This work was extended to two natural soils, viz., Red earth (kaolinitic type) and B.C. soil (montmorillitic type) by using fractionized fine portion from these soils obtained by sedimentation process, and later mixed with different proportions and grades of sand fractions. Results from this experimental investigation reveals that, at optimum sand content in clay–sand mixtures, use of medium sand fractions is more beneficial to improve the undrained strength of the mixtures irrespective of the clay mineral type being present in the mixture. It thus implies that proper selection of grade of sand is also important along with the optimum content to obtain higher strength of a clay–sand mixture. This has practical implications in understanding the performance of embankments or any ground improvement applications involving strength of clayey natural soils for better load carrying capacity, stability, and good performance of the structure supported by soil. It is also very useful in the geo-environmental applications like proper selection of proper grade of clay–sand mixtures as liners for better performance.

Practical charts to identify the predominant clay mineral based on oxide composition of clayey soils

This study proposes some useful practical charts representing the relationships between oxide composition and the type of predominant clay mineral present in clay soils. In order to produce the charts, the data set are collected from published literature. Some useful classification schemes for predominant clay mineral type were obtained by using binary and ternary graphs of oxide composition data. The most successful relations indicating the type of clay mineral have been found on SiO2 versus Al2O3+Fe2O3+FeO, SiO2 versus MgO+CaO+Na2O+K2O binary plots, SiO2−Al2O3−Others and SiO2−Al2O3−K2O ternary plots.

Relation of NMR parameters with specific surface and resistivity of shaly sandstone and siltstone samples: experimental study

Using an MST-05 NMR relaxometer, we determined the dependence of NMR parameters on the specific surface and resistivity of water-saturated shaly sandstone and siltstone core samples. The influence of the type and quantity of clay minerals was evaluated at residual water saturation, because the main contribution to the measured NMR signal in this case is made by clay content. Based on NMR relaxometry data, we obtained quantitative estimates of the specific surface with clay- and capillary-bound fluids. The surface relaxivity was estimated from thermal-desorption and NMR relaxometry data. The high degree of reliability of its values was confirmed by the agreement between the pore size distributions determined by NMR relaxometry and by capillarimetry and granulometry. We have established that the parameters of NMR spectra depend on the specific surface and resistivity, which are, in turn, a function of the surface properties of both clay and sandstone/siltstone particles.

A Multi‐Element Mineral Conditioner: A Supplement of Essential Cations for Red Soil and Crops Growth

A multi‐element mineral conditioner (MMC) is a kind of slightly alkaline soil conditioner prepared by calcining a mixture of calcium or magnesium‐based desulfurized flue gas residue, potassium feldspar, gypsum, dolomite, and limestone powder, rich in available K, Ca, Mg, Si, and other micronutrients. To evaluate the effect of MMC on the concentration of essential cations in red soil and in the crops grown thereon, a 4‐month field experiment was conducted. By applying the MMC, the acidity of the red soil caused by weathering and chronic acid rain in Southern China can be neutralized, and the essential cations severely lacking in red soil and crops can be adequately replenished. Due to the addition of essential cations to red soil, the 1:1 type clay mineral gradually transformed into 2:1 type clay mineral. The grain yield was increased and the quality of rice was improved. The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Hg, and As in rice grains grown in the treated soil was significantly decreased. These results demonstrate that use of MMC can ameliorate soil and improve its fertility, reduce the reliance of crops on chemical fertilizers, raise the rice yield and improve the quality of red soil.

Compositional controls on pore-size distribution by nitrogen adsorption technique in the Lower Permian Shanxi Shales, Ordos Basin

The purpose of this article is to quantitatively reveal the compositional controls on pore-size distribution (PSD) within the transitional Lower Permian Shanxi Shales.Our results demonstrate that the average pore-size (APS) of Shanxi Shales is approximately 12–24 nm and that the size is essentially controlled by clay minerals. The ‘closed area’ of the hysteresis loop, the most prevalent feature in microporous materials, can qualitatively reflect the PSD. A rule regarding the PSD is confirmed that the larger the closed area is, the smaller the pores are, and vice versa. Type III kerogen in the Shanxi Shales is shown to be composed of nearly nonporous organics, whereas the clay minerals possess large amounts of inter-layer pores; therefore, the PSD of the Shanxi Shales is determined by the clay-hosted pores, whose pore-size intervals differ by clay mineral type. Specifically, I/S-hosted pores possess both intra-aggregate pores with a characteristic 3–4 nm pore size and inter-aggregate pores with a characteristic 50–60 nm pore size; of these, the former predominates. On the other hand, the pores associated with the other clay mineral types (including kaolinite, illite, and chlorite) are mostly inter-aggregate pores with a characteristic 50–60 nm pore size. Overall, our research contributes to understanding the physical properties of the transitional Shanxi Shales and revealing their nano-scaled pore-size distribution and variation.

Mineralogical and Geochemical Control of Altered Andesitic Tuff upon Debris Slide Occurences at Pelangan Area, Southern Mountain of Lombok Island, Indonesia

Debris slides were recently found in the Pelangan area at Southern Mountain of Lombok Island, Indonesia. Pelangan is well known as the gold mineralization and hydrothermal alteration area. This study is aimed to identify the mineralogy and geochemistry of altered andesitic tuff that controlled slope instability and induced debris slides. For this purpose, it is necessary to prepare the field observation and laboratory analyses. Landslide inventory reveals that the Pelangan debris slides mostly occur in altered andesitic tuff. Based on the outcrop observations in the field, andesitic tuff found around the Pelangan debris slides have been altered in general. The strong intensity of alteration developed by hydrothermal alteration in this study area produces large amount of clay minerals especially montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite. The abundance of those clay minerals reflect the intermediate argillic alteration. Montmorillonite is a type of clay mineral that easily swells at wet condition and easily shrinkages at dry condition. Swelling of clay mineral destroys intersheet and interlayer bonds, and reduces shear strength. The presence of clay minerals in the altered andesitic tuff of intermediate argillic zone can be considered as one of the factors that induced to the Pelangan debris slides. Further studies on geotechnical and slope stability analysis of the landslide area are crucial to be done for better understanding of the characteristics of the altered rocks inducing hazardous landslides.

Micro and nano-size pores of clay minerals in shale reservoirs: Implication for the accumulation of shale gas

A pore is an essential component of shale gas reservoirs. Clay minerals are the adsorption carrier second only to organic matter. This paper uses the organic maturity test, Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) to study the structure and effect of clay minerals on storing gas in shales. Results show the depositional environment and organic maturity influence the content and types of clay minerals as well as their structure in the three types of sedimentary facies in China. Clay minerals develop multi-size pores which shrink to micro- and nano-size by close compaction during diagenesis. Micro- and nano-pores can be divided into six types: 1) interlayer, 2) intergranular, 3) pore and fracture in contact with organic matter, 4) pore and fracture in contact with other types of minerals, 5) dissolved and, 6) micro-cracks. The contribution of clay minerals to the presence of pores in shale is evident and the clay plane porosity can even reach 16%, close to the contribution of organic matter. The amount of clay minerals and pores displays a positive correlation. Clay minerals possess a strong adsorption which is affected by moisture and reservoir maturity. Different pore levels of clay minerals are mutually arranged, thus essentially producing distinct reservoir adsorption effects. Understanding the structural characteristics of micro- and nano-pores in clay minerals can provide a tool for the exploration and development of shale gas reservoirs.

Quantitative analysis of the clay minerals in the Shurijeh Reservoir Formation using combined X-ray analytical techniques

The Shurijeh Reservoir Formation of Neocomian age is represented by a sandstone sequence, occasionally interbedded with shale, in the Gonbadli gas field, Kopet-Dagh Basin, Northeastern Iran. In this study X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) techniques were used together to characterize the Shuirjeh clay minerals in 76 core samples collected from two deep Gonbadli wells. The results of XRF analysis showed high percentages of silicon and moderate to low percentages of aluminum, sulfur, calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, and iron in both wells. The XRD analysis indicated that the above elements were concentrated in the form of quartz, anhydrite, dolomite, calcite, plagioclase, K-feldspar, hematite, and clay minerals. Further XRD examination of the clay fraction revealed that illite, chlorite, and kaolinite were the major types of clay minerals. Unlike, glauconite, smectite, and a mixed layer clays of both the illite–smectite and chlorite–smectite types were observed only in very few samples. The percentages of individual clay minerals were determined using external standard calibration curves and successfully validated by a system of simultaneous linear equations acquired from detailed elemental information based on the XRF analysis. The error reached ±5% for the main mineral constituent and ±15% for minor minerals. A local regression relationship was also derived, based on the XRF elemental information, which can be used to estimate the clay contents of other Shurijeh drilled wells with data of pulsed-neutron spectroscopy tools. According to the proposed quantitative approach, the amount of illite varied considerably, reaching 18.3%. In contrast, the amounts of kaolinite and chlorite were generally small, i.e., less than 8.4%. The amount of total clay minerals changed greatly from a minimum of 5% to a maximum of 32.5%. An increase in illite with increasing burial depth and temperature was an obvious indication of deep burial diagenesis in this formation.