Two-way Shape Memory Research Articles

A 1D micromechanics-based constitutive model for the thermoviscoelastic behavior of crosslinked semicrystalline shape memory polymers: numerical simulation and experimental validation

Abstract The paper develops a 1D thermoviscoelastic constitutive model for the crystallization- and melting-induced one-way and two-way shape memory effects, as well as isothermal yielding behaviors, of crosslinked semi-crystalline polymers. A micromolecular chain model is proposed to characterize the transition between the amorphous and crystalline phases. Structural equations including a modified Eying model that combine phase transition and viscoelasticity equations are employed to predict the shape memory effects. An extensive experimental campaign has been carried out on poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) based semi-crystalline elastomers to characterize the thermoviscoelastic temperature-stress-strain relations of the material under different loading and rate conditions. Some results guide the determination of the model parameters, while the rest validate the model capabilities. Comparisons with the experimental results show that the model can well reproduce the stress-strain-temperature responses, providing valuable insights for application development.

4D printable and recyclable two-way shape memory butadiene rubber as ultrasensitive, longer-lasting, and lower-cost fire warning sensors

4D printable and recyclable two-way shape memory butadiene rubber as ultrasensitive, longer-lasting, and lower-cost fire warning sensors

The Effect of Fe Content on the Shape Memory Effect of Ni-Mn-Ga-Fe Shape Memory Alloy Microwires after Ordering Heat Treatment

The shape memory capabilities of Heusler alloy microwires with two different contents of Fe element instead of Ga element following step-by-step ordering heat treatment were explored based on the stoichiometric ratio of Ni2MnGa. The melt-drawing technique was used to create the polycrystalline microwires, and the two microwires had Fe atomic contents of 4.7 at.% and 5.5 at.%, respectively. The field emission scanning electron microscope was used to analyze the microwire’s surface condition as well as the microscopic tensile fracture morphology. Using an X-ray diffractometer, the microwires’ crystal structure was identified for phase analysis. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to examine the microwires’ behavior during martensitic transformation. Using a dynamic mechanical stretcher, the elongation and recovery rate of microwires’ one- and two-way shape memory behavior were examined. The findings demonstrated that the microwire phase structure, martensitic transformation behavior, and shape memory capabilities all displayed good properties after the heat treatment was ordered.

Intelligent Reversible Reconfigurable Metamaterials Based on a Two-Way Shape Memory Polymer.

The development of intelligent reversible reconfigurable metamaterials has great significance in constructing three-dimensional metamaterials and introducing reversible tunability into metamaterials. Here, we introduce an intelligent metamaterial consisting of a two-way shape memory polymer (2W-SMP) ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) actuator substrate and a patterned flexible-rigid film. Mechanical buckling of the 2W-SMP substrate was controlled by thermal stimulation. This makes it possible to afford an ability to initiate 3D structure formation or shape reconfiguration remotely in an on-demand fashion. In addition, the shape of the 2W-SMP substrate is temperature-dependent, allowing repeatable reversible deformation through temperature control after a single programming. Therefore, the electromagnetic properties of metamaterials can also be repeatedly and reversibly tuned between 9.15 and 10.82 GHz. Experimental demonstrations include the deformation and tunable electromagnetic properties of intelligent reversible reconfigurable metamaterial cells. The results create many opportunities for advanced programmable three-dimensional metamaterials.

Modeling and Analysis of Resistance-Sensing Characteristics for Two-Way Shape Memory Alloy-Based Deep-Sea Actuators

Deep-sea actuators based on shape memory alloys (SMAs) are an emerging frontier field of multidisciplinary crossover, and the resistive sensing characteristics are the basis for the drive control of SMA deep-sea actuators. The resistance and resistivity of SMAs are complex and highly dependent on temperature and stress, and there is no complete description of SMAs for extreme environments of high pressure, low temperature, and high salinity in the deep sea. In this study, the logistic function is introduced to improve the kinetic equation of phase transition, and the macromechanical model, the law of resistance, and the resistivity mixing rule are integrated to model and analyze the resistive self-awareness characteristics of two-way shape memory alloy deep-sea actuators. The complex coupling relationships among resistance, strain, stress, resistivity, and temperature under constant load conditions are investigated, and the validity of the resistance-sensing model is verified by the water bath cycling test. The results show that the predicted values of the model agree well with the measured values. The self-perceived relationship between the resistance and deformation of the two-way shape memory alloy can be effectively expressed, which provides theoretical model support for the design of memory alloy deep sea actuators and sensorless drive control.

Three-Dimensional Phase-Field Simulation of Stress-Assisted Two-Way Shape Memory Effect and Its Cyclic Degradation of Single-Crystal NiTi Shape Memory Alloy

Three-Dimensional Phase-Field Simulation of Stress-Assisted Two-Way Shape Memory Effect and Its Cyclic Degradation of Single-Crystal NiTi Shape Memory Alloy

On the effect of the processing parameters in microstructure and thermomechanical properties of LPBF NiTi shape memory alloys

Recent studies have shown that variations in the parameters of the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process significantly impact the microstructure and thermomechanical properties of NiTi shape memory alloys (SMAs). Understanding how parameter selection influences the final NiTi SMA properties enables the strategic design of additively manufactured (AM) components with tailored mechanical and transformation behavior, suitable for specific applications in a plethora of scientific fields. However, the connection between processing and thermomechanical properties of NiTi SMAs is still not completely understood. This study investigates the effects of AM parameters laser power (72–185 W), scanning speed (668-1739 mm/s), and hatch spacing (28–85 μm) on a near equiatomic NiTi powder. Low porosity levels are found in the samples additively manufactured (AM) with the different LPBF parameter combinations. The findings also reveal that transformation temperatures and nickel evaporation trends correlate directly with volumetric energy density (VED). Additionally, the amount of Ti2Ni precipitates increases with higher VED. Thermal cycles under constant stress, training, and two-way shape memory effect tests have been performed; the results demonstrate a strain recovery ratio of 2–3.5% for most of the samples. The results arising from this study pave the way for the engineering of customized materials with tailored properties from the same alloy metal powder.

4D printed NiTi variable-geometry inlet for aero engines

ABSTRACT In modern aerospace engineering, the demand for innovative and adaptable solutions is paramount. This study focuses on enhancing aircraft engine components, specifically variable-geometry inlets, to meet evolving aviation technology requirements. We utilise custom Ni51Ti alloy powder to create 4D printed variable-geometry inlets. A comprehensive examination of thermal history and residual stress reveals differences in the behaviour of NiTi alloys at various points of the 4D printed inlet. After post-treatment, the printed inlet demonstrates stable two-way shape memory effects, undergoing adaptive deformation with temperature changes, mimicking the operational conditions of a commercial aircraft. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) tests confirm that the 4D printed NiTi alloys maintain very stable phase transformation temperatures and two-way shape memory performance. Fluid dynamics simulations further reveal that the variable-geometry inlet design is potentially more efficient in certain operational scenarios with a total pressure recovery factor of 0.9919.

Tailoring the stress-free two-way shape memory effect in sol–gel crosslinked poly(ϵ-caprolactone)-based semicrystalline networks

Two-way shape memory polymers are stimulus-responsive materials capable of changing their shape between two configurations based on an on/off thermal stimulus. While the traditional effect has been studied under the application of an external mechanical load, it was demonstrated also in the absence of an external load. Such a response only relies on a carefully tailored macromolecular architecture of the polymer combined with a specific thermo-mechanical protocol. In particular, semicrystalline networks, either consisting of a multi-phase copolymer network or a homopolymer based network with broad phase transitions, have been proposed to this aim under ad hoc thermo-mechanical histories. In this work, the two-way shape memory behavior is studied on a poly(ϵ-caprolactone)-based network, crosslinked by means of a sol–gel approach and tailored on the selection of the molecular weight of the precursor polymer. Changing the prepolymer precursor allowed to tune the melting/crystallization regions of the networks, thus the thermal region of the reversible shape memory effect. The application of properly designed thermo-mechanical cycles allowed to study the two-way shape memory effect without the application of an external load under tensile conditions. Given a specific network, the stress-free actuation of the reversible elongation-contraction cycle under tensile conditions was induced across its specific melting/crystallization region. The extent of the effect was found to depend on the crystalline fraction remaining for the given actuation temperature and on the tensile stretched state imposed on the materials during the training step. The results were compared with the response achieved under the traditional two-way shape memory protocol under stress. The stress-free two-way shape memory effect was also successfully demonstrated and emphasized, under flexural conditions, which suggests the potential of these materials as intrinsically reversible actuators, promising for applications in the biomedical field and/or for soft robotics.

Enhanced thermal cycle stability and shape memory effect in NiTiHf shape memory alloys fabricated by laser powder bed fusion

We report on the fabrication of NiTiHf high temperature shape memory alloys (SMAs) via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), which are almost free of micro-pores and display (Ti, Hf)2Ni nanoprecipitates with variable size and volume fraction. The effect of variable laser powers of 50 W, 60 W and 70 W on the martensite variant microstructures and mechanical properties of the LPBFed SMAs was investigated. Interestingly, all LPBFed NiTiHf samples display enhanced thermal cycle stability of transformation temperatures with a temperature eviation of −3°C, which is attributed to the lack of dislocation slip originated from the habit plane configuration characteristic with multidomain (001) martensite compound twins. Meanwhile, all LPBFed NiTiHf samples exhibit trained one-way and two-way shape memory effects due to the dislocation slip upon compression deformation at room temperature.

Enhanced metamagnetic shape memory effect in Heusler-type Ni37Co11Mn43Sn9 polycrystalline ferromagnetic shape memory alloy

Polycrystalline Ni-Co-Mn-Sn based ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMAs) show promise as actuator materials, but their practical application involving magnetic field induced strain (MFIS) is often limited by three factors: the requirement for high magnetic fields (> 5 T), martensitic transition temperature away from room temperature, and limited recovery of pre-strain applied to the martensite phase. Current work investigates the martensitic transition and shape memory effect under the application of magnetic field for bulk polycrystalline Ni37Co11Mn43Sn9 alloy. The outcome of the study reveals a metamagnetic transition from the martensitic phase to the austenitic phase at a low field of 2.8 T at 300 K which results 0.25 % spontaneous MFIS. Interestingly, 1.3 % pre-strained specimen registers a 100 % recovery with the application of magnetic field of 4.5 T. Furthermore, the pre-strained specimen exhibited a two-way shape memory effect between a strain value of 1.0 % to 1.55 % during the field loading and unloading sequences. Notably, this study demonstrates, for the first time to the best of our knowledge that the spontaneous MFIS and pre-strain add together. This finding paves the way for achieving a giant MFIS by pre-straining a Ni-Mn-Sn/In class of FSMAs which shows large spontaneous MFIS.

A new pavement crack repair sealant with two-way shape memory effect

To address the challenge of sealant debonding due to cyclic temperature variations, a new pavement crack repair sealant which can achieve two-way shape memory deformation is developed. The developed crack sealant is a shape memory liquid crystal elastomer (SMLCE), designed to exhibit the deformation characteristics of heat contraction and cold expansion. First, the material composition and preparation process of the developed SMLCE are given. Thermodynamic properties, phase transition temperatures and molecular structures are analyzed based on DSC and FITR. The effects of the crosslinker and chain extender ratios and the key preparation processes on the two-way shape memory deformation and mechanical performance of SMLCE are systematically analyzed. Based on the analysis, the optimum ratio of SMLCE is determined to be 1:15 and the optimum secondary crosslinking preparation process is 150% orientation stretching. Under the optimal solution, the developed SMLCE can achieve the multiple two-way shape memory reversible deformation with a maximum 46% deformation in the temperature range of -20°C∼120°C. At the same time, the developed SMLCE has excellent mechanical properties, with a tensile strength of 20.7Mpa and an elongation at break of 322%. It also exhibits good low-temperature deformation capabilities at -10°C and above. Finally, the suitability and application potential of the developed two-way SMLCE as a pavement crack sealant are assessed. The developed SMLCE has good adaptability in most climate zones, which indicates its great potential as a pavement crack sealant. This research provides a new way for the pavement crack repair.

Electrical discharge shape memory alloying of Ti-6Al-4V: Mechanisms and mechanical properties

Electric discharge alloying presents an alternate coating process for improving mechanical properties through physical and metallurgical modification. Ti-6Al-4 V is a titanium alloy used in aerospace industry and biomechanical applications but has limitations in terms of wear resistance. Alloying with nickel could provide improvements in terms of wear and other tribological properties. Nickel as an alloying element provides pseudo-elastic behaviour (such as two-way shape memory effect) by changing α-Ti to β-Ti. After coating process, surface hardness of the samples increased up to 684 HV0.5 while in the cross-section, it ranged up to 580 HV0.5. Due to porosity, areas with hardness below the base material hardness value of 260 HV0.5 were measured as well. At the lowest load, coefficient of friction had a value of 1.1 while at higher loads it decreased down to 0.8 compared with alloyed layer with average values of 0.3 to 0.7. Wear resistance properties of titanium were improved as well. Specific wear rate under 40 N was 1.0 × 10−5 N/mm2 showing higher wear resistance with minimal ploughing.

A thermo-mechanical constitutive model for triple-shape and two-way shape memory polymers

Semicrystalline polymers often have diverse molecular configurations in response to the variation of temperature, making it easier to realize multiple or two-way shape memory effects (SMEs). In order to provide guidance for the design of relevant smart structures, it is necessary to develop corresponding constitutive models to better characterize the thermal-mechanical behavior of such shape memory polymers (SMPs). For the first time, a thermo-mechanical finite deformation constitutive model is presented to reveal the deformation mechanism of the triple-shape two-way SME of semicrystalline SMPs in our work, based on the theory of thermodynamics with internal state variables. To verify the validity of the model, the model results are compared with the test data for a typical shape memory cycle. It is found that the model can be employed to describe the non-equilibrium response of semicrystalline SMPs with two types of crystallites in the vicinity of crystallization and melting. Since the model results fit well with the test data, the effectiveness of the model in predicting the triple two-way shape memory behavior is demonstrated.

Features of functional behavior of TiNi shape memory alloy after uniaxial high speed magnetic pulse tension

This study investigates the influence of high strain rate on the functional properties of TiNi shape memory alloys. Specimens were deformed in tensile mode using a magnetic pulse loading setup equipped with an optical system to measure the loading time. The technique allows to obtain different strain rates without changing the working part of the specimens, i.e. the residual strains remained the same. The results show that the shape memory effect decreases by 10–25% with increasing strain rate. However, a high strain rate has a positive effect on the two-way shape memory, which increases by 10–25%.

A thermo-mechanical, viscoelasto-plastic model for semi-crystalline polymers exhibiting one-way and two-way shape memory effects under phase change

A finite strain phenomenological model is developed to simulate the shape memory behavior of semi-crystalline polymers under thermo-mechanical loading. The polymer is considered to be a composite of crystalline and amorphous phases with constant volume fractions. While the amorphous phase is stable, the crystalline one is considered to change phase with temperature. Therefore, the crystalline phase is considered further to be composed of two phases, whose volume fractions are controlled by a temperature and strain dependent function: the melted phase which is soft, and the crystallized phase which is stiff.A pressure dependent viscoelasto-plastic behavior is considered for the constitutive model of the different phases. In addition to pressure dependent plasticity, additional deformation measures are applied to the crystalline phase to model temporary (imperfect shape fixity) and permanent (imperfect shape recovery) deformations in a thermo-mechanical loading cycle. Formulating a compressible plastic flow during the phase changes yields the possibility to capture both one-way and two-way shape memory effects. As a consequence, the load-dependent and anisotropic thermal expansion observed experimentally in semi-crystalline polymers during phase change is naturally captured.The model is validated within a test campaign performed on nano-composite having a semi-crystalline polymer as a base material. It is shown that the model gives close results with the tests and it is able to capture the shape fixity and shape recovery behaviors of the polymer, for both one-way and two-way shape memory effects.

Tuning the Properties of Multi-Stable Structures Post-Fabrication Via the Two-Way Shape Memory Polymer Effect.

Multi-stable elements are commonly employed to design reconfigurable and adaptive structures, because they enable large and reversible shape changes in response to changing loads, while simultaneously allowing self-locking capabilities. However, existing multi-stable structures have properties that depend on their initial design and cannot be tailored post-fabrication. Here, a novel design approach is presented that combines multi-stable structures with two-way shape memory polymers. By leveraging both the one-way and two-way shape memory effect under bi-axial strain conditions, the structures can re-program their 3D shape, bear loads, and self-actuate. Results demonstrate that the structures' shape and stiffness can be tuned post-fabrication at the user's need and the multi-stability can be suppressed or activated on command. The control of multi-stability prevents undesired snapping of the structures and enables higher load-bearing capability, compared to conventional multi-stable systems. The proposed approach offers the possibility to augment the functionality of existing multi-stable concepts, showing potential for the realization of highly adaptable mechanical structures that can reversibly switch between being mono and multi-stable and that can undergo shape changes in response to a change in temperature.

4D Fabrication of Two-Way Shape Memory Polymeric Composites by Electrospinning and Melt Electrowriting.

This work presents a new method for 4D fabrication of two-way shape memory materials that are capable of reversible shapeshifting right after manufacturing, upon application of proper heating and cooling cycles. The innovative solution presented here consists in the combination of highly stretched electrospun shape memory polymer (SMP) nanofibers with a melt electrowritten elastomer. More specifically, the stretched nanofibers are made of a biocompatible thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) with crystallizable soft segments, undergoing melt-induced contraction and crystallization-induced elongation upon heating and cooling, respectively. Reversible actuation during crystallization becomes possible due to the elastic recovery of the elastomer component, obtained by melt electrowriting of a commercial TPU filament. Thanks to the design freedom offered by additive manufacturing, the elastomer structure also has the role of guiding the shape transformation. Electrospinning and melt electrowriting process parameters are set up so to obtain smart 4D objects capable of two-way shape memory effect (SME), and the possibility of reversible and repeatable actuation is demonstrated. The two components are then combined in different proportions with the aim of tailoring the two-way SME, taking into account the effect of design parameters such as the SMP content, the elastomer pattern, and the composite thickness.

A phase-transition model of reprocessible thermadapt shape memory polymer

A new type of thermadapt shape memory polymer (SMP) has not only the processability of thermoplastic SMP, but also the excellent shape fixation of thermosetting SMP. To enhance the application of this thermadapt SMP within industrial sectors, a comprehensive constitutive model based on phase transition is being proposed as an indicative descriptor of the semi-crystalline thermadapt SMP’s salient features, predominantly related to its two-way shape memory effect (SME) and thermal reprocessability. The concept of cooling elongation is also introduced in this model for modeling the two-way SME during the crystallization process. The molecular mechanism of chain-packing has been studied and used to establish phenomenological formulas. In addition, to systematically assess the temperature-time dependence of the crystallization process, the Avrami equation is improved by incorporating the distribution of polymer chain segments. This strategy provides a detailed investigation into the evolving pattern of the crystallization process in response to various temperature and time conditions. Compared with the experimental results, it is found that our model can well capture mechanical behavior in multiple shape memory cycles, including the two-way SME and reshaping process caused by bond exchange reaction. Furthermore, the potential application of SMP in smart mandrels is explored because the cooling elongation feature is able to endow it with self-adaptive expansion ability.

Effect of pore on the deformation behaviors of NiTi shape memory alloys: A crystal-plasticity-based phase field modeling

Porous NiTi shape memory alloys (SMA) have been developed into important biomedical and damping materials. However, the effect of pore on the martensitic microstructure evolution, functional properties, and plastic deformation has not been fully clear yet. In this work, to reveal the functional properties including superelasticity (SE), elastocaloric effect (eCE), one-way shape memory effect (OWSME), and stress-assisted two-way shape memory effect (SATWSME), as well as plastic deformation of porous NiTi SMAs, the polycrystalline SMA system is considered as a composite containing the grain-interior (GI) and grain-boundary (GB) phases, a thermo-mechanically coupled, grain-size-dependent and crystal-plasticity-based phase field model is proposed for the GI phase, and an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model is established for the GB phase. The effects of porosity, pore diameter, pore aspect ratio, pore orientation, and pore distribution, as well as the interaction between pore and grain size, are comprehensively revealed and discussed. The simulations demonstrate that the pores cause a heterogeneous stress field, and the interaction among pores and that between pores and grain boundaries can enhance such heterogeneity, which can promote the initiation of martensitic transformation and reorientation. Moreover, the geometrical constraints caused by the pores can significantly affect the morphology and evolution of martensite microstructures. However, due to the diverse microstructure evolutions during SE, OWSME, and SATWSME, their interactions with the pores are quite different, resulting in various dependencies of each functional property and plastic deformation on the pore, and such dependencies are strongly influenced by porosity, pore diameter, pore aspect ratio, pore orientation, and pore distribution. The simulated results in this work are helpful to comprehensively and deeply understand the pore effect and its microscopic mechanism.