Turkish War Of Independence Research Articles

İNGİLİZ KIDEMLİ YÜZBAŞI H. C. LUKE'UN YUNAN İŞGALİ SONRASINDA AYDIN VİLÂYETİ'NDEKİ GÖZLEMLERİ (10-21 EYLÜL 1919)

Identifying and registering the devastation and destruction left behind by wars with the right resources and methods is as important as the war. Accordingly, it is a known practice to send official or unofficial observers to the territories of the countries subjected to destruction during or at the end of wars within the framework of the norms of international law or the personal expectations of the states. Confidential or apparent reports issued as a result of these implementations are some of the main sources in determining the results of devastation and serve to set light on history. One of these reports that presented data on the Turkish War of Independence is the observations of Lieutenant Commander H. C. Luke. Lieutenant Commander H. Luke from the British Hms.Iron Duke ship was assigned by the Supreme Commander of the Mediterranean Army, High Commissioner, Sir J. de Robeck, to make observations on the Greek invasion in Aydin Province which is a fait-accompli after the troops were landed in Izmir. Luke's observations and detection activities took place between 10-21 September 1919. The British Lieutenant Commander, expressed the information he obtained during his observations by meeting with local administrators in the region, members of the Greek occupation force, representatives of the minority religion, the leaders of the local Turkish irregulars and the intelligence officers of the Allied Powers in his report dated November 6, 1919. In the study, it is aimed to reveal the evaluations of Aydin’s occupation process and afterwards in the light of the report prepared by Luke and which has been examined in detail before. In this scope, the general population and social structure of the region was introduced by using a thematic method, the developments before and after the occupation of Aydin were shown, the sociopolitical goals of the Greeks were created and specific details are provided about “the actions of hiding in the trojan horse and turning their opportunity into spoils”.

Mahmut Makal'ın Bizim Köy Adlı Eserinde Halk Bilimi ve Halk Kültürü Unsurları

Abstract War is a major disaster that leads to the destruction of the societies from all aspects. And the Turkish War of Independence caused the Turkish Republic which was on the foundation phase to start from the very beginning. Most of the scholars who were educated thanks to the reforms implemented in the downfall period of the Ottoman Empire, had died in the Independence War. For the development of the newborn country one of the main factors to be improved was education together with economy. In order to succeed this development, it was necessary to educate the people whose 80 percent lived in rural areas, and this education should have directed people to production in all aspects. But in spite of all the laws and regulations implemented, desired level of success could not have been reached. One of the reasons of this failure was to try to understand and expalin the rural life from the viewpoint of city life. At this downturn Makal, indited his masterpiece “Bizim Koy” which shows the facts that it was needed to see the city life from the viewpoint of rural life and describes the village reality as it was. The factors that lead “Bizim Koy’’ to attract attention to the highest levels of the State, were Makal’s growth in the village and to observe the peasent and the village reality well while teaching in villages. In this study, Mahmut Makal’s usage of folklore and folk culture elements in his masterpiece named “Bizim Koy” have been observed. These elements are classified as main and subtitles and include samples with page numbers. Makal has been seen as the victim who lived exactly from birth what he told as much as the narrator in “Bizim Koy”. Makal’s Bizim Koy is an important masterpiece which transfers the village truth without fret and also represents a trend which will be called ‘’village literature ‘’ after years. As a result of this study, thanks to the fact that Makal was a village boy and he reflected his observations with all their reality, in “Bizim Koy” someone can see quite a lot elements of that period such as language, clothing, beliefs, games and entertainment.

Edirnekapı Martyrs’ Cemetery: Towards a Therapeutic Forgetting

Edirnekapı Martyrs’ Cemetery (Edirnekapı Şehitliği, 1926), which is located in one of the oldest and largest cemeteries of Istanbul, contains the graves of mainly Muslim soldiers who died during the Balkan War and WWI, especially those wounded in the Çanakkale War (Gallipoli Campaign), which is considered the forerunner of the Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı, 1919-1923) and one of the influential founding myths of the Turkish Republic. The soldiers who have lost their lives in the war against the PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) since the end of the 1980s are also buried here, creating a continuum of historical enemies. In addition, civilians killed during the 15 July coup attempt in 2016 are buried in a separate section next to the Edirnekapı Cemetery, adding another internal enemy - the Gülen Movement - to the official history. The physical correspondence of this mnemonical expansion is also visible in the expansion of the cemetery area, which has been gradually transformed into a public transportation hub since 2008. This article examines how the cemetery reproduces the myth of martyrdom and shapes the social frameworks of memory in favour of nationalism on the D-100 highway. The intersectionality of collective memory and urban infrastructure is analysed through the history and spatial formation of the cemetery, as a part of the greater mnemonic constellation on the D-100 highway.

Türkiye-Polonya İlişkilerinin Tesisinde Başlıca Dış Dinamiklerin Fonksiyonu

Dünya tarihinin iki kadim milleti olan Polonyalılar/Lehler ve Türklerin ikili ilişkilerinde hem Osmanlı Devleti hem de Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin kuruluş döneminde temel dış dinamiklerden biri Çarlık Rusya/Sovyet Rusya’nın izlediği dış politika olmuştur. 20. yy.’ın başında Türkiye ve Polonya iç politik ortamında köklü değişimler-dönüşümler yaşanmasına rağmen her iki devletin genel dış politika stratejilerinde ve birbirleriyle ilişkilerinde Rus/Sovyet realitesi varlığını korumaya devam etmiştir. Osmanlı’nın Polonya ile ilişkilerini temel dış tehdit unsuru olan Rusya’ya karşı denge stratejisi belirlerken, Milli Mücadele döneminde TBMM-Polonya ilişkilerinde baş müttefik Sovyet Rusya’nın muvafakati büyük oranda belirleyici olmuştur. Bu yönüyle Türkiye-Polonya ilişkilerinde aynı temel dış dinamiğin -olumlu ya da olumsuz-süreklilik arz etmesine yol açan etkenlerin, söz konusu zaman kesitinde uluslararası sistemin devamlılığı ve Polonya-Türkiye-Sovyet Rusya coğrafyasının da içinde bulunduğu bölgede algılanan dış tehdit unsurlarının sabit durumu olduğu söylenebilir. Bu çalışmada Türkiye-Polonya ilişkilerinin tesisine giden sürece dair ana kesitler incelenmiş, söz konusu evrede Sovyet Rusya-Polonya ve Türkiye-Sovyet Rusya arasında yaşanan gelişmelerin analiziyle bir dış dinamik olarak Sovyet Rusya’nın Türkiye-Polonya ilişkilerine etkisi değerlendirilmeye çalışılmıştır.

ANADOLU VE İSTANBUL DAKİ ÖĞRETMENLERİN 1918-1924 YILLARI ARASINDAKİ MAAŞ SORUNLARINA KRONOLOJİK BİR BAKIŞ

The imperialist powers implemented their plans to share the Turkish lands which they had previously concealed among themselves with the Treaty of Mondros. During the Turkish War of Independence between 1918-1922, teachers actively participated in the struggle. Education soldiers made the public aware of the invasions at every stage of the liberation struggle, organized rallies and fought on the front if necessary. They sometimes receive their salary with a delay of months. At this stage, they suffered a lot of poverty and distress. All their attempts to get their salaries were fruitless, some of them had to quit teaching before they could even fulfill their obligatory services, and there was no other way for them to strike. At this stage, the education which is already low in the country has come to a halt. The salary problems of teachers continued during the years when the Ankara Government was established. The idea of separating schools from private administrations and connecting them to the center, which was considered as a solution in these years, could not be realized due to many obstacles. This article focuses on teachers' salary and economic problems between 1918-1924. Historical documents and sources were used in the study

Ihsan Hun’s Book of Military History and its Place in Military Historiography

Bu makalede öncelikle askeri tarih yazımının genel hatlarına kısaca değinilmiştir. Yazım amaçlarına ve içeriklerine göre birbirlerinden değişiklik gösteren popüler, profesyonel ve akademik askeri tarihçilik türleri tanımlanmıştır. Çalışmanın temelinde, önce Osmanlı Devri’nde subaylık yapmış, Milli Mücadele’ye katılmış ve Cumhuriyet Dönemi’nde de subaylığa devam etmiş olan İhsan Hün’ün ‘Askerî Tarih’ kitabı ve askeri tarih yazım anlayışı vardır. İhsan Hün, Cumhuriyet Dönemi’ndeki askeri tarihçiliğin ilk örneklerinden birisini vermiştir. Bu kitap tetkik edilmiş, İstanbul’un Fethi konusunun nasıl ele alındığı gösterilmiştir. Eserin, söz konusu askeri tarihçilik türlerinden ‘profesyonel askeri tarihçiliğe” iyi bir örnek teşkil ettiği görülmüştür. Böylece İhsan Hün ve tarih anlayışı okurlara tanıtılmaya çalışılmıştır.

A Forgotten Fifteenth-Century Ottoman Mosque and Its Inscriptions

Abstract The Eşrefoğlu Mosque in Iznik was destroyed during the Turkish War of Independence, not long after Cornelius Gurlitt published a black and white photograph of its facade taken by G. Berggren. The photograph constitutes the only remaining visual evidence of a building whose initial construction likely dates to the lifetime of the shaykh whose memory it preserved. The flamboyant facade shown in the photograph reveals a unique mass of calligraphy, including inscriptions, published many years ago but revisited here. These inscriptions add to our understanding of the mosque’s history. My own telling of the phases of the building’s construction involves a reexamination of the identity of the mosque’s Ottoman dynastic patrons, principally Gülbahar Hatun, mother of Sultan Bayezid II. The inscriptions also raise questions about the shaykh’s spiritual legacy. Finally, the mosque’s spatial relationship to a nearby dervish lodge and to türbes associated with the shaykh and his family, buildings that also no longer survive, can be newly addressed.

A Hiccup in Turkey s Prolonged Credit Fueled Economic Transition: A Comparative Analysis of Before and After the August Rout

Mustafa Kemal’s well-organized resistance army was victorious in the Turkish War of Independence, which expelled the occupying armies; subsequently, Mustafa Kemal abolished the Ottoman Empire in 1922 by overthrowing Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin and established the Turkish Republic in 1923. No doubt, there is absolutely no other event or development is more important than this in the young history of the Turkish Republic. Economically, the 2001 Turkish economic crisis was the greatest shock since 1923, which cost the government in excess of $50 billion and led to the signing of three standby agreements (over $ 40 billion) with the IMF. Turkey's near meltdown economy, a casualty of repeated speculative attacks on Turkish lira in August 2018 and the subsequent unfolding events, had contracted 5% or so in 2018 compared with that of 2017, and it is forecast to contract further in 2019 after a decade-long credit-fueled boom. It is feared that the farfetched implications of the August rout of 2018 could toss Turkey back in high inflationary mode; however, Turkish government authorities have dismissed the recent severe economic trouble and blamed the crisis on dysfunctional and hostile policies of non-economic basis. Regardless, in the immediate aftermath of the August shock, Turkish lira plummeted 42% of its value against dollar (i.e. from 5.09 on August 2 to 7.24 on August 13) and inflation (CPI) soared to 26% which prompted the Turkish central bank (TCMB) to hike the fund rate by 625 basis points to 24%. Although the Turkish lira has appreciated substantially against dollar since August 2018 (from 7.24 on August 13 to 5.61 on August 2, 2019), Turkey’s unemployment rate surged to 14.7 in February 2019, which is the highest level in a decade. Turkey’s depressed economic situation is in desperate need of foreign capital flows used by the financial authorities to service the debt obligations, but Turkey’s external barrowing have become substantially limited in recent years. With massive foreign debt stock (about $400 billion which is over 50% of its 2018 GDP), Turkey must find ways to attract capital inflows in the form of FDIs and FPIs.

A Hiccup in Turkey’s Prolonged Credit Fueled Economic Transition: A Comparative Analysis of Before and After the August Rout

Mustafa Kemal’s well-organized resistance army was victorious in the Turkish War of Independence, which expelled the occupying armies; subsequently, Mustafa Kemal abolished the Ottoman Empire in 1922 by overthrowing Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin and established the Turkish Republic in 1923. No doubt, there is absolutely no other event or development is more important than this in the young history of the Turkish Republic. Economically, the 2001 Turkish economic crisis was the greatest shock since 1923, which cost the government in excess of $50 billion and led to the signing of three standby agreements (over $ 40 billion) with the IMF. Turkey's near meltdown economy, a casualty of repeated speculative attacks on Turkish lira in August 2018 and the subsequent unfolding events, had contracted 5% or so in 2018 compared with that of 2017, and it is forecast to contract further in 2019 after a decade-long credit-fueled boom. It is feared that the farfetched implications of the August rout of 2018 could toss Turkey back in high inflationary mode; however, Turkish government authorities have dismissed the recent severe economic trouble and blamed the crisis on dysfunctional and hostile policies of non-economic basis. Regardless, in the immediate aftermath of the August shock, Turkish lira plummeted 42% of its value against dollar (i.e. from 5.09 on August 2 to 7.24 on August 13) and inflation (CPI) soared to 26% which prompted the Turkish central bank (TCMB) to hike the fund rate by 625 basis points to 24%. Although the Turkish lira has appreciated substantially against dollar since August 2018 (from 7.24 on August 13 to 5.61 on August 2, 2019), Turkey’s unemployment rate surged to 14.7 in February 2019, which is the highest level in a decade. Turkey’s depressed economic situation is in desperate need of foreign capital flows used by the financial authorities to service the debt obligations, but Turkey’s external barrowing have become substantially limited in recent years. With massive foreign debt stock (about $400 billion which is over 50% of its 2018 GDP), Turkey must find ways to attract capital inflows in the form of FDIs and FPIs.

THE MOVEMENT OF THE TURKISH LITERATURE

The movement of Turkish literature is divided into several broad periods of Turkish writers. Older literature covers the period from the Seljuks (900-1300) and the Ottoman period (1300-1922). The early period of the Ottoman literature, until the 16th century, was influenced by the Persian ideas, and after the 1520s, Arab ideas began to dominate.The movement of Turkish literature is often a part of political movements. Turkish patriotism gradually replaced the old Ottoman and Muslim traditions. This publicatoin will focus on the influence of the West, in particular the French concept of nationalism in Turkish Literature.The Young Turk Revolution, World War I, the Turkish War of Independence and the Reformation of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk all profoundly influenced the development of modern Turkish literature."New Turkish Literature" is a literary genre developed and transformed in parallel with Western effects. Starting from the birth until the 19th century, it is possible to mention the existence of Turkish literature formed under the influence of Central Asia and the Orient.The "New Turkish Literature" is a literary reflection of pro-Western oriented Turks, or the modernization process that began in 1839 in the Tanzimat period (Reorganization).

THE MOVEMENT OF THE TURKISH LITERATURE

The movement of Turkish literature is divided into several broad periods of Turkish writers. Older literature covers the period from the Seljuks (900-1300) and the Ottoman period (1300-1922). The early period of the Ottoman literature, until the 16th century, was influenced by the Persian ideas, and after the 1520s, Arab ideas began to dominate.The movement of Turkish literature is often a part of political movements. Turkish patriotism gradually replaced the old Ottoman and Muslim traditions. This publicatoin will focus on the influence of the West, in particular the French concept of nationalism in Turkish Literature.The Young Turk Revolution, World War I, the Turkish War of Independence and the Reformation of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk all profoundly influenced the development of modern Turkish literature."New Turkish Literature" is a literary genre developed and transformed in parallel with Western effects. Starting from the birth until the 19th century, it is possible to mention the existence of Turkish literature formed under the influence of Central Asia and the Orient.The "New Turkish Literature" is a literary reflection of pro-Western oriented Turks, or the modernization process that began in 1839 in the Tanzimat period (Reorganization).

European Imperialism and Syrian Resistance (1919-1922): Similarities and Differences with the Turkish War of Independence

In the early twentieth century, as a reaction to the European Imperialism’s project of reshaping the Middle East region, which consists of mostly the Ottoman territories, Turks, started a war of independence. At the same time, a resistance took shape in the Syrian region. However, the resistance formed between the years 1919 - 1922 in the Syrian region take a small place in the Turkish literature. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to define the characteristics of the resistance through an analysis primarily on the political environment and developments in 1919-1922 in the Syrian region and the motivations and outcomes of these events, foreign and local political actors. On the other hand, the motives that enabled the Turkish war of independence to succeed will be highlighted with a comparative study on the failed example of Syria, which was fought against the same powers in the same geography and time period. 20. yüzyılın başında Avrupa emperyalizminin Osmanlı hâkimiyetindeki toprakları içeren Ortadoğu bölgesini yeniden şekillendirme projesine karşı Türkler bir istiklal harbi başlatırken Suriye bölgesinde bir direniş zuhur etmiştir. Ne var ki Türkçe literatürde 1919-1922 yıllarında Suriye bölgesinde cereyan eden bu mücadele pek az yer tutmaktadır. Bu nedenle çalışma, Suriye bölgesinde bu evrede yaşanan siyasi hadiseler, bu hadiselerin ortaya çıkış nedenleri ve sonuçları ile sürece etki eden iç ve dış siyasi unsurları inceleyerek, mücadelenin niteliğini tanımlama gayretindedir. Öte yandan aynı coğrafyada, aynı tarihsel kesitte, aynı güçlere karşı verilen iki mücadelede başarıya ulaşamamış Suriye örneğiyle karşılaştırılmak suretiyle Türk milli mücadele sürecinin başarıya ulaşmasını sağlayan saiklere dikkat çekilmektedir.

A Past, So Distant, and Yet So Very Near

This article analyses how the post-1908 Ottoman Empire is represented in Türk Tarih Kurumu’s historiographical journal Belleten between 1937 and 1950. The post-1908 Ottoman Empire is a marginal topic in Belleten’s first years. When it is addressed at all, it mainly focuses on Mustafa Kemal’s biography and the Turkish War of Independence. While the Constitutional Revolution is positively evaluated, and the Young Turks are partly represented as ideological predecessors to the Kemalists, the authors also use the Second Constitutional Era as a dark contrast against which they can show the Republican reforms and successes more clearly. Aspects of the recent past that relate to the Ottoman state and government institutions are strongly historicized, while simultaneous events relating to Mustafa Kemal’s biography are discursively brought close to the present by using personal memory as a legitimate source. More than half of the authors writing about the recent past hold a political office, indicating an overlap between the political and the historiographical discourse.

From Gun Barrel to Passport: Smuggling on the Turkish-Syrian Border

Syria, which has witnessed a war that has been going on for many years now, is a country founded by the French after the Turkish War of Independence in the early 20th century, and the border between Turkey and Syria was drawn up during the French mandala. One of the characteristics of this border line—which is also valid for most of the newly-founded Middle-Eastern and African nation-states—is that historic and ethnic continuities have not been calculated, and that it was drawn up as if with a ruler. This characteristic has revealed various border fancies in terms of the states with political borders and the people or groups living on the border line. Undoubtedly, one of the areas in which political borders are visualized differently by the state and the border people is the cross-border trade. In this study, the economic action, defined from the perspective of the state as 'smuggling' between Nusaybin, a county in Mardin and the city of Qamishli in Syria, which are situated oppositely in the Turkish-Syrian border region, has been handled. The conversion of land, which has a traditional use value, into a territory for modern states, can problematize a 'natural' economic activity by making it 'illegal'.

Urban Transformations In İstanbul During The Term Of Mayor Cemil Topuzlu

This article examines the impact of urban transformation and development policies of Mayor Cemil Topuzlu in Istanbul. Topuzlu served two terms as mayor of Istanbul. His first term was on the eve of World War I. His second term coincided with the last year of Turkish War of Independence. These were times when the Ottoman Empire experienced financial crisis as a consequence of wars it fought and the losses it suffered. Despite this unfavourable background, Topuzlu’s policies played an important part in the transformation of Istanbul. Topuzlu stayed in Paris as a student of medicine and had already been impressed by urban development projects he witnessed during his stay. When he became mayor, he set out to transform Istanbul into a “European” city. He started wide-ranging expropriation, demolition and development projects. His policies, which were based on “imported” concepts caused controversy and attracted criticism from public and intellectuals of the time. In this article, examples of debate and criticism are quoted from newspapers and other publications of the time. Also, the impact of his transformation policies on the historical and traditional fabric is investigated.

Stefan Ihrig, Transnational and entangled histories of National Socialism? The Turkish dimension of German interwar

The history of National Socialism is mostly narrated and researched within its national, German context. While it appears obvious that Germany was interconnected with the broader world at the time, this has had little impact on our understanding of the history of National Socialism. This article investigates the Turkish dimension of especially early National Socialism and shows how debates on Turkey and recent events there influenced and shaped debates in the German media in the early Weimar republic. The Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923) as well as the Armenian Genocide during World War I Turkey were topics of public debate in the early Weimar Republic. While this seems surprising, if not unlikely at first, it is through translation of these events into wholly German terms and dimensions that they became highly relevant to Germany at the time. This is a contribution to entangled history and media history as it proposes a new way to understand international history and influences through public debates, news coverage, and political discourse.

Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination

Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination

The end of the Ottoman Empire as reflected in the İstanbul bourse

ABSTRACTThe Ottoman Empire faced catastrophic events during its period of dissolution which started with the First World War. At the end of this war, the Ottoman lands were shared by the Allied forces. As a reaction to this occupation, the Turkish War of Independence started in 1919 and finished in 1923. The authors aim to examine how these events were reflected in the İstanbul bourse, using Ottoman government bond prices data between 1918 and 1925. Econometric methodology of Carla Inclan and George Tiao (1994) identifies several break points, which imply a lower risk for the repayment of the bonds during the end of the First World War and the Turkish War of Independence.

Remembering the Gallipoli campaign: Turkish official military historiography, war memorials and contested ground

The Gallipoli campaign occupies an important place in modern Turkish history, a position reinforced by the release of new publications and the construction of additional monuments to mark the centenary of the conflict. However, these are comparatively recent developments as, just decades ago, the Gallipoli campaign was not regarded as significant to the foundation of the Turkish Republic nor as a powerful source of national identity. While popular Turkish remembrance and commemoration of the campaign began with the wartime propaganda and myth-making of the period, the Turkish War of Independence proved more significant to the national consciousness, inspiring its own particular myths and legends. Yet, with the passage of time, official military histories, personal war narratives, the construction of the Dardanelles Martyrs’ Memorial in the early 1950s and the official campaign of the 1980s to create a more articulated Gallipoli history proved instrumental in establishing Gallipoli as crucial to the foundation narrative. Alongside this, recent political and sociocultural developments have also seen the creation of an alternative Islamic myth (with the controversy that accompanies it) while reinforcing the omnipresence of Gallipoli in Turkish history and national consciousness.

İstiklal Harbi'nde Sovyetler Birliğinden gelen yardımlar

The Turkish War of Independence was a period which was marked by economic problems. Alongside the aid that came from the state itself, foreign aid was also sought for. In this period, especially aids from the Russian territory and from Turkish and Muslim people lived in this area were signicant. This work aims to examine this issue in the light of the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives and the Institute of Turkish Revolutionary History archive materials.