Turkish Territory Research Articles

Between Islam and Catholicism: Bosnian Franciscan Missionaries in Turkish Hungary, 1584-1716

The work of the Bosnian Franciscan missionaries represents a peculiar episode in the history of Catholic renewal in Central Europe. By studying these developments, we may become acquainted with the manner in which the various denominations and nationalities coexisted in the Carpathian basin. In the following, I shall examine the work of the Bosnian missionaries on the basis of documents preserved in the Rome archives of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of Faith (de Propaganda Fide), a body of cardinals founded by Pope Gregory XV in 1622 to direct Catholic missions throughout the world. Until recently most of the documents used in this study were unknown; they are soon to be published.1 After the battle of Mohacs (1526) and the fall of Buda (1541), the middle third of the medieval kingdom of Hungary was occupied by the Turks. Large numbers of southern Slavs moved into the Turkish-occupied areas of Hungary. While many of these people were Catholics, overall the Catholic Church in Hungary was significantly weakened by the effects of the Reformation. The Catholic bishops were appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor acting as the king of Hungary. The Emperor was the main enemy of the Turkish Sultan, and thus the Hungarian bishops were refused access to the Turkish territories. After the Reformation and the Turkish conquest the fate of the Catholic Church became increasingly uncertain in Turkish Hungary. For this reason, the arrival of Bosnian Franciscan friars from the Balkans had a great effect upon the lives of Hungarian, Croatian, Romanian, and Bosnian Catholics living in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Compared with other Catholic priests working in the Turkish sovereign area, the Bosnian Franciscans established a far more intimate relationship with the Ottoman authorities. This special relationship, where it led the Bosnians to persecute their rivals within the Catholic Church using Turkish military force, rightly outraged the Ragusan, Italian, and Hungarian priests who were the potential victims. Still, it did provide the Franciscans with far greater room for manoeuvre in their missionary work.2 Franciscan friars appeared in Bosnia at the end of the thirteenth century. They were given the task of challenging the Bogomil heretic church. The Pope declared the whole of Bosnian Kingdom to be a missionary territory and appointed the Franciscans as local inquisitors. Friars arrived in Bosnia from many different countries: English, German, Italian, and Aragonese Franciscans converted the Bosnian heretics, and here too the famous inquisitor, Saint Jacob of Marche, worked. During the golden age of the order in Bosnia in the middle of the fifteenth century, Franciscan friars were living in about sixty monasteries throughout the country. Owing to the popularity of the Bogomil heresy, the number of Catholic secular priests in the country was very small. Thus, contrary to the traditional ecclesiastical model, according to their papal privileges the Franciscans in Bosnia also worked as parish priests. From the sixteenth century on, they continued to occupy the parishes also in Turkish Hungary.3 The Bosnian Franciscans and the Turkish Occupation The end of the golden age of the Bosnian kingdom and the Franciscan order in Bosnia came with the occupation of the country by the Ottomans, which was completed by 1463. The Turkish occupation divided the Franciscan order in Bosnia into two parts. One part fell under Turkish rule (its territory grew constantly with the advance of the Turks), while the other part remained part of the Christian world. Following the incorporation of Bosnia into the Sultan's empire, local Franciscans stayed on rather than fleeing. The Turkish administration tolerated and even assisted the Bosnian Franciscans because it needed them in order to keep the peace and to control the tax-paying Catholic populations and prevent their emigration. …

The rise and fall of the PKK

In 1992 Turkey was in the midst of a war with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan—PKK), whose forces were credibly estimated to be 10,000 strong. 1 In 1996 the journalist Franz Schurmann called the PKK “the biggest guerrilla insurgency in the world” and wrote of its founder and uncontested leader, Abdullah Ocalan, that “he alone among Kurdish leaders understands that a social revolution is going on in Kurdish society everywhere.… Ocalan will go down in the history books as the Saladin of the late 20th century.” 2 By summer 1999, however, senior officers of the Turkish military and Jandarma (militarized police) estimated the PKK’s total strength inside the country at 1,500 and declining rapidly. 3 In May 2000 the Turkish Daily News reported that “PKK armed militants have largely left Turkish territory after the PKK executive council called on them to cease armed struggle and leave Turkey.” 4

Ras-el-Aïn (Syrie N) et le problème des sources karstiques artésiennes aux marges ou à l'intérieur des domaines arides (Ras-el-Ain (N Syria) and the problem of the artesian karst springs at the border or inside of the arid areas)

Abstract. - The springs-lakes, head of the Khabur (Ras-el-Aïn, Djezireh) are regarded as one of the great karst springs of the world (mean discharge : 38,6 m3.s-1). The recharge area spread widely in the north side, in the turkish territory, up to the basalt massiv of the Karacali dag. The groundwater discharge supply the springs mainly from two superimposed aquifers of eocene limestones, and miocene evaporites and limestones ; many solution collapses are noted (Burdon and Safadi, 1962). In Saudi Arabia, the AI Hofuf springs, in the El Hasa oasis, belong to similar compound aquifers. In the genesis and working of these very large artesian hydrosystems, are debated the part of the neotectonic stress, the paleoclimatic stages and the hyperkarstic chemical processes.

The scarab beetles of Turkey: an updated checklist and chorotype analysis (Coleoptera, Scarabaeoidea)

Biogeographia - vol. XXI - 2000 (Pubb/icato il 30 giugno 2000) Biogeografia del|’Anato|ia The scarab beetles of Turkey: an updated checklist and chorotype analysis (Coleoptera, Scarabaeoidea)1 GIUSEPPE M. CARPANETO *, EMANUELE PIATTELLA**, RICCARDO PITTINO *** *Dz;zgartz'menr0 di Biologia, Urzizzerszra degli Stmli “Roma Tre”, Viale G. Marconi, 446 — I—00I46Roma (Italy) **Dz}7artiment0 di Biologia Animale e dell’Uom0 (Zoologia), Univerritiz degli Studi “La Sapienza ”, Viale a’ell’Unz'z/erritfz, 32 — I—00185 Roma (Italy) ***Muse0 Civico di Sroria Naturale, Corro Vmezia, 55 — I—20I2I Milarzo (Italy) Key words: Anatolia, Turkey, Near East fauna, zoogeography, diversity, endemics. SUMMARY A checklist of 625 species of Coleoptera Scarabaeoidea (281 Laparosticti and 344 Pleurosticti) occurring within the political borders of the Turkish Republic is presented. These species belong to 99 genera and 14 families. The high percent value oFPleurosticti (55%) respect to other Mediterranean scarab beetle faunas, can be explained with the high degree ofwildetness and habitat diversity of the Turkish territory which includes large areas ofwoodland and natural steppe. Usually, the richness of Pleurosticti is subject to a strong decrease whenever the land use is dominated by intensive agriculture or grazing. To each species a main chorotype was assigned in accordance with the most recent criteria. Two chorotypes are dominant: the SW—Asiatic (15%), the E—Mediterranean (12%). According to the current taxonomic arrangement, the number of endemic species appeared very high (234 species that is 37.4% of the whole scarab fauna of Turkey) but inequally distributed in the two above mentioned groups, as the Pleurosticti represent 75% of the endemics. Most endemics occur in southern Anatolian, which resulted to be the scenario of an adaptive radiation for some genera (mainly within Glaphyridae, Melolonthidae and Rutelidae), probably due to the high Horistic and habitat diversity. Nevertheless, precaution is due in this diversity assessment because several taxonomic groups of scarab beetles should be carefully revised before processing data for zoogeographical analysis. The highest number of endemics is referable to a S—Anatolian (=Taurian) pattern ofdistribution observed in 87 species (14%). Other major patterns are: the species widely spread throughout Anatolia (10.6%), and those restricted to the Armenian and Armeno— Caucasian areas (4.5%). INTRODUCTION The aim of the present work is to set—up the current knowledge on the scarab beetle fauna of Turkey, providing an updated checklist of the species till now 1 Zoological researches in the Near East by Universities of Rome: 192. This study was supported by grants from MURST 1999 (University of “Roma Tre”) “Variazione geografica e diversita a livello di specie, faune e zoocenosi: cause storiche ed ecologiche”.

Fascist Italy’s 'Mare Nostrum' Policy and Turkey

Following his seizure of power in 1922, Mussolini began to pursue the policy of 'mare nostrum' of the ancient Romans. He had an eye on the Anatolian lands bordering the Mediterranean. Local symbol of the Italian menace was the Dodecanese Islands which were started to be fortified in 1934. Mussolini's speech of that year showed that Italy did not renounce its earlier designs on Turkish territory. Atatürk did not take Mussolini's claims seriously, but the danger Italy represented could not be ignored. During the Ethiopian crisis, Turkey supported the League of Nations' sanctions against Italy and advocated the principle of collective security. Facing Italian expansionism, Turkey requested the holding of an international conference in Montreux and succeeded to obtain the right of bringing back the Straits to full Turkish sovereignty. Turkey's distrust of Italy deepened in 1937 and 1938. Ankara disliked the policy of Rome-Berlin axis. It did not acquit Italy of designs in the eastern Mediterranean. Italian occupation of Albania in 1939 soon led to Turkey's signing of mutual assistance agreements with Britain and France. Italy sharply denounced the Turco-Anglo-French rapprochement. For Turkey, as an ally in the eastern Mediterranean, had the strength to tip the balance against Italy.

The Decision of the German Federal Constitutional Court of 12 July 1994 in Re Deployment of the German Armed Forces ‘Out of Area’

The Federal Republic of Germany, due to its geopolitical situation but also to its limited sovereignty, has never been seriously confronted with an official request to engage in military activities outside NATO, i.e., ‘out of area’. When during the Iraq-Kuwait conflict (1990/91) German armed forces were deployed in Turkey, serious concerns were raised as to their possible involvement in military activities — even though Germany would have been obliged to conform with its NATO obligations in case of an Iraqi attack on Turkish territory. Until recently, German Federal Governments always excluded a military engagement ‘out of area’ by pointing at the Federal Republic's Constitution — the Basic Law (‘Grundgesetz’). They took the view that the armed forces could only be used for defensive purposes. That is to say, either for the defence of the territory of the Federal Republic or of a NATO ally. Other uses, be they for the defence of a non-NATO member State, be they authorized by the UN Security Council, including peace-keeping operations, were considered prohibited by the Basic Law because it lacked an explicit permission to that effect. Nevertheless, in the aftermath of the Iran-Iraq conflict (1980–88) units of the Federal Navy were deployed in the Persian Gulf in order to sweep mines laid by the former belligerents off the coasts of the Gulf's riparian States. Of course, during the Iraq-Kuwait conflict, the Federal Republic of Germany took a very reserved stance and confined itself to a – considerable – financial contribution to the Allies' efforts to liberate Kuwait.

NOMANSLAND: The British Colonial Office and the League of Nations Mandate for German East Africa, 1916–1920

One of the many problems facing the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 was the future of the conquered German and Turkish territories in Africa, the Pacific, and the Middle East. Widespread anti-imperialist sentiment in Europe and the United States opposed direct annexation of the possessions, but wartime agreements and the security interests of the Allies prevented returning the conquered areas to their former rulers. In particular, many British leaders wanted to ensure that Germany could never again attempt world domination and were convinced that the restoration to Germany of its overseas possessions would pose a “grave political and military menace” to Britain's vital maritime connections with South Africa and India. After a long, often acrimonious debate, the Conference agreed on a compromise that placed the former German colonies and Ottoman provinces under the supervision of the League of Nations. This solution gave the Allies control of their acquisitions as “mandates” within a framework of international accountability. Great Britain received the most mandates, including Germany's largest colony of German East Africa. For the British leaders who had always advocated transforming German East Africa into a British colony, the new system seemed to make little practical difference. For the colonial officials in London and at the highest levels of colonial administration within the conquered possession, however, the mandates system presented serious problems and was not simply a disguise for annexation.

Recent advances in the treatment of burns—1843–1858

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, the year is 1858. Living as close as we do to great events in history many of which cost the lives of thousands it is difficult to see the care of the burnt in proper perspective. During these fifteen years the potato famine in Ireland (1845-47) killed one million men, women and children. Ten years ago (1848) was the year of revolution when unrest swept through Europe. Louis Napoleon set up the Second Republic in France and there were revolutions in Milan, Naples, Venice, Rome, Berlin, Vienna, Prague and Budapest. We put down the insurrection in Tipperary, Russia suppressed the uprising in Roumania (Wall,achia) and Austria that in Hungary. That same .year saw a Convention of Womens’ Rights in New ‘York, an activity of which I believe neither our Queen nor Lord Palmerston can approve. Neither can they approve the sentiments in the Manifesto published in that same year by Mr. Marx who had been working on it in London, “The workers have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a. world to gain. Workers of the world, unite!” With the Californian gold rush beginning in 1848 and that in Australia in 185 1 there would appear to be a distinct possibility that there may be future conflicts of interests between these “communists” and those with capital. The Russian invasion of Turkish territory in 1853 precipitated the Crimean War (1854-56) but the consequent nursing disciplines imposed by Miss Nightingale must soon help our cases of burns. Balacl,ava, Inkerman and Sevastopol were being fought whilst Dr. David Livingstone was crossing Africa. While our military was fully employed in Turkey the United States of America was busy signing a commercial treaty with Japan (1854). No sooner had the Treaty of Parismarked the end of the fighting in the Crimea than the horrors of the

A Note on the “Arabesques” in the Diatessaron, Florence, Bibl. Laur., Orient. 81

In his impressive article on the Laurentian illustrated Diatessaron,1 Professor Carl Nordenfalk reproduces two arabesques on folios 125V-126 which seem to be some sort of inscriptions, but which he evidently finds undecipherable and unreadable.2 He goes on to say: “The only thing that seems sure is that the double leaf has been inserted in the middle of the quire, apparently for some purpose which has nothing to do with the Gospel harmony as such. One can only guess what its proper function was. Since, on his way to Italy, the Catholicos of Armenia had to pass through Turkish territory, perhaps he wanted to have something in his book of a non-Christian character, that might appeal to the followers of Mohammed, in case he had to show it. Or could it even be some sort of passport or laisser-passer given him by some Turkish authority before his departure?”3

The Anglo-Turkish Conflict Fifty Years Ago

Fifty years ago at Chanak (Dardanelles), on Turkish territory, the Turkish Army under Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), the national hero of the Gallipoli campaign, faced its British counterpart, commanded by General Sir Charles Harington, Commander-in-Chief, Army of Occupation. What was the British Army doing on Turkish soil, and why were the armies of these two nations poised for armed conflict? The story goes back to the First World War. The Ottoman Empire, which had participated in that War as an ally of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria), was defeated by the Entente Powers (Britain, France, Italy and Greece), and was forced to sign the Armistice of Mudros on 30th October, 1918. This Amistice some of the terms of which were deliberately made ambiguous, enabled the Allies to set about possessing the war spoils in the form of Tutkish territories which they claimed to be theirs "by virtue of the secret treaties and by right of conquest". The secret war-time agreements, contracted by the belligerent Allies on clifferent dates, had envisaged the complete dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the division o Turkish territories amongst Britain, France, Italy and Tsarist Russia. They had also revealed the hypocrisy of the Allies, who had openly declared their war aims to be, inter alia, the preservation of the integrity and independence of the Turkish homelands.

V. Mesopotamia in British War Aims, 1914–1918

An expeditionary force of the Indian Army landed in Turkish territory at the head of the Persian Gulf almost immediately upon the declaration of war by Britain against Turkey on 5 November 1914. After winning some minor engagements against Turkish forces, it marched into Basra, the chief town of southern Mesopotamia, on the 23rd. The subsequent course of the campaign in Mesopotamia included a number of setbacks for the British. The principal city, Baghdad, was not captured until after nearly two and a half years of fighting, and the chief northern city, Mosul, not indeed until after an armistice had been signed with Turkey. Even so, by the time hostilities ceased, large areas in the south had been under continuous British occupation for four years and the possibility of further advance was throughout the war present in the minds of British leaders, whether in London, Simla or Mesopotamia itself. Against this background of military conquest and a pre-war diplomacy among the European powers, excluding Russia, in which Mesopotamia had been marked out as the British sphere if Turkey was partitioned, it is unsurprising that the political future of the country should have been much discussed within British official circles. War aims went through several phases whose study contributes to understanding of British aims in the war as a whole.

The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 1919–1922

The decision of the Supreme Council of the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 to place the German colonies and Turkish territories under the supervision of the League of Nations raised serious political and legal questions to which no one had satisfactory answers. But, by contrast with the numerous recent studies of World War I and the Peace Conference that deal at least in passing with the origins and establishment of the mandates system, there are very few satisfactory scholarly essays that analyzer the aftermath of the Peace Conference's deliberations on international colonial affairs. The opening of the archives of the government of the United Kingdom after 1919 provides a good opportunity to review the subject and to examine what the unpublished records reveal about international supervision in colonial areas.

German Proverbs from the Orient

In his comprehensive work, Das deutsche Lehnsprichwort, Friedrich Seiler traces the apparent origin of a vast number of proverbs and proverbial expressions current in Germany. He finds that the Greek and Roman classics, the Bible and the works of the Church Fathers yield many of the ancient proverbs still in common use. With regard to the large number of proverbs that have seemingly come from the French, Seiler, as he well realizes, treads on uncertain ground, and much of the material that he here gathers together will have to be reëxamined. It is quite evident that many of the proverbs in this latter group are common medieval proverbs, current over a large part of Europe, which first appear in the vernacular literature and collections of proverbs of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. To attribute French source to them often requires more evidence than Seiler presents. In his treatment of this large body of medieval and international proverbs that seem to have arisen during the Middle Ages and the early modern period—proverbs that give him the most difficulty in finding a possible source—Seiler quite overlooks influences that may have come from the oriental languages, through the Arabic via Spain or into southern Europe via North Africa, or, still more probably for many of these proverbs, via the eastern European countries bordering on Tartaric, Arabic, or Turkish territory.

Boliotti v. Masse.

Capitulations — Capitulatory Régime in Territory under Enemy Occupation — Turkish Territory Occupied by Italy.Occupation of Enemy Territory — Judicial Authority — Existing Courts Presided over by Judges Nationals of the Occupying Power — Capitulatory Régime in Occupied Territory.Occupation of Enemy Territory — Status of Occupied Territory — Capitulatory Régime — Italian Occupation of Turkish Territory.

Caratheodory (plaintiff) v. French State (defendant).

Jurisdiction — Foreign States — Exemption from Jurisdiction — Military Occupation of Turkish Territory after 1918.

The Settlement of Lausanne

On August 6, 1924, nearly six years after the Armistice of Mudros, the state of war which had existed in the Near East since 1914 was terminated as between Turkey, on the one hand, and the British Empire, Italy and Japan, on the other hand, by the drawing up of the first procès-verbal of the deposit at Paris of the ratifications of the settlement concluded at Lausanne on July 24,1923. The state of war between Greece and Turkey had already been terminated a year ago, pursuant to the settlement of Lausanne, and under the terms of the same settlement the Allied forces of occupation had been withdrawn from Turkish territory; the prisoners of war and interned civilians detained by Greece and Turkey, respectively, had been mutually restored; the compulsory exchange of certain portions of the Greek and Turkish populations had been effected; and a general amnesty for political offenders had been declared. The portions of the settlement brought into force by the recent ratifications are the Treaty of Peace, the Straits Convention,the Commercial Convention and the Convention respecting Jurisdiction and the Conditions of Residence and Business. Certain instruments which did not require ratification, including the Declarations relating to Sanitary Matters and to the Administration of Justice and the Protocol and Declaration relating to Concessions, may now also be expected to be given practical effect.

Recent Political Changes in the Moslem World

Ten years ago the Moslem world seemed near to political extinction. The only portion of it that could present a reasonable claim to be called independent was Turkey, and Turkish freedom was hampered by debt control, which gave foreigners the command of a large fraction of the Turkish revenues, and by the Capitulations, which allowed foreigners to reside on Turkish territory without obedience to Turkish laws. At the close of the Great War this last remnant of the once vast political Islam seemed about to be destroyed. But in a little more than five years a very different situation has developed among the Moslems, and in many regions they are moving rapidly in the direction of independence and modernization. Not only Turkey, but Persia, Afghanistan, Khiva, Bokhara, Albania, Egypt, and the Hejaz claim to be independent now; while other regions, such as Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Turkestan, and Azerbeijan, not to speak of Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, are in different degrees stirred with the desire to become free. In fact, every portion of the Moslem world, defining it to mean those lands in which persons professing the Mohammedan faith are in the majority, aspires to full statehood. India does not fall within this definition, having only about 20 per cent of Moslems; but the Moslems of India along with the rest are agitated by the demand for the complete independence of that great country.The principal ideas that have been working in the Moslem world are self-determination, constitutionalism, the separation of church and state, the desire to obtain the benefits of modern scientific advances, and unwillingness to remain indefinitely among those regarded as backward peoples. All of these ideas have had their origin or their recent development in western civilization. They have all been greatly promoted by the example and in many cases by the actual promises of Western nations engaged in the recent war.

XIV. Protocol Relating to the Evacuation of the Turkish Territory Occupied by the British, French and Italian Forces

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Origin of the System of Mandates Under the League of Nations

The present arrangements for the government of the colonial territories taken from Germany and Turkey in the World War, arrangements which may collectively be described as the system of mandates under the League of Nations, may work well or they may work badly. They may persist into an indefinite future, they may come to an abrupt termination and leave nothing of their own kind in their place, or, most probable of all, they may be progressively modified in one way or another with the passage of time and changes of circumstances. But, whatever happens hereafter, the present system is now an accomplished fact, and will necessarily be taken as the basis for any action in the future. The apparent inclination of at least one great power to insist upon all its rights in former German and Turkish territories now under mandate to other powers, and the firmness of the latter in defending their position under the mandate system, indicate, further, that the present system has already created rights, interests, and claims on one side and another which will call for constant consideration and regulation as time goes on.