Turkish Citizenship Research Articles

‘A knife with two sides’: naturalization and the ambivalent value of citizenship for Syrians in Turkey

ABSTRACT Different legal citizenships and passports are associated with different sets of status, rights and identities. Through naturalization into a higher-value citizenship, former migrants can improve economic opportunities, transnational mobility, and ease relationships. Building on growing research that questions the migrant-citizen binary, this paper asks how citizenship matters in practice through an exploration of naturalization amongst displaced Syrians in Turkey. Drawing on qualitative research with Syrians, some of whom held temporary protection status while others had naturalized, the paper argues that the rights and status associated with Turkish citizenship are ambivalent, simultaneously beneficial and costly. Naturalization provided some economic and social rights and spatial mobility compared to temporary protection status. But Turkish citizenship also reinforced class-based distinctions and racial discrimination, and shaped new forms of exclusion: Syrians forewent certain mobility and economic strategies that they accessed as refugees. The paper argues to conceive naturalization as a technology of territorialization that fixes people onto a certain territory and forces migrants to make difficult choices when negotiating state practices of bordering and mobility control. Paying attention to the simultaneously mobilizing and territorializing effects of naturalization helps to question linear assumptions of citizenship and status hierarchies.

Recruiting people with selected citizenships for the health interview survey GEDA Fokus throughout Germany: evaluation of recruitment efforts and recommendations for future research

BackgroundGermany is the second most common country of immigration after the US. However, people with own or familial history of migration are not represented proportionately to the population within public health monitoring and reporting. To bridge this data gap and enable differentiated analyses on migration and health, we conducted the health interview survey GEDA Fokus among adults with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian, or Turkish citizenship living throughout Germany. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effects of recruitment efforts regarding participation and sample composition.MethodsData collection for this cross-sectional and multilingual survey took place between 11/2021 and 5/2022 utilizing a sequential mixed-mode design, including self-administered web- and paper-based questionnaires as well as face-to-face and telephone interviews. The gross sample (n = 33436; age range 18–79 years) was randomly drawn from the residents’ registers in 120 primary sampling units based on citizenship. Outcome rates according to the American Association for Public Opinion Research, the sample composition throughout the multistage recruitment process, utilization of survey modes, and questionnaire languages are presented.ResultsOverall, 6038 persons participated, which corresponded to a response rate of 18.4% (range: 13.8% for Turkish citizenship to 23.9% for Syrian citizenship). Home visits accounted for the largest single increase in response. During recruitment, more female, older, as well as participants with lower levels of education and income took part in the survey. People with physical health problems and less favourable health behaviour more often took part in the survey at a later stage, while participants with symptoms of depression or anxiety more often participated early. Utilization of survey modes and questionnaire languages differed by sociodemographic and migration-related characteristics, e.g. participants aged 50 years and above more often used paper- than web-based questionnaires and those with a shorter duration of residence more often used a translated questionnaire.ConclusionMultiple contact attempts, including home visits and different survey languages, as well as offering different modes of survey administration, increased response rates and most likely reduced non-response bias. In order to adequately represent and include the diversifying population in public health monitoring, national public health institutes should tailor survey designs to meet the needs of different population groups considered hard to survey to enable their survey participation.

Determinants of Mental Health Inequalities Among People With Selected Citizenships in Germany.

Mental health is essential for overall health and is influenced by different social determinants. The aim of this paper was to examine which determinants are associated with mental health inequalities among people with selected citizenships in Germany. Data were derived from the multilingual interview survey "German Health Update: Fokus (GEDA Fokus)" among adults with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian, or Turkish citizenship (11/2021-05/2022). Poisson regressions were used to calculate prevalence ratios for symptoms of depression (PHQ-9) and anxiety disorder (GAD-7). Sociodemographic (sex, income, age, household size) and psychosocial (social support and self-reported discrimination) determinants were associated with symptoms of depression and/or anxiety disorder. The prevalence of mental disorders varied most by self-reported discrimination. Our findings suggest mental health inequalities among people with selected citizenships living in Germany. To reduce these, social inequities and everyday discrimination need to be addressed in structural prevention measures as well as in interventions on the communal level. Protective factors (e.g., social support) are also important to reduce mental health inequalities on the individual and community level.

According to the Turkish Citizenship Law No. 5901 Evaluation of The Polygamy Problem in Acquiring Turkish Citizenship Through Investment with the Recent Decision of the 2nd Civil Chamber of the Supreme Court of Verdict Dated 04.26.2022

According to the Turkish Citizenship Law No. 5901 Evaluation of The Polygamy Problem in Acquiring Turkish Citizenship Through Investment with the Recent Decision of the 2nd Civil Chamber of the Supreme Court of Verdict Dated 04.26.2022

Surviving in the Digital Space: Digital Literacy of Syrian Immigrants in Turkey

Turkey is one of the countries hosting the largest number of Syrian immigrants in the world. Integration
 of Syrian immigrants is one of the problems Turkey has to overcome. Many studies around the world
 show that digital communication tools can be used effectively by immigrants in many integration processes
 such as language learning, learning about culture and socialization. In this study, which was carried out
 as a project of The Scientific And Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK), we aimed to
 determine the digital literacy levels of Syrian immigrants, which is a prerequisite for their integration by
 using digital tools. We applied a digital literacy scale adapted to Arabic to Syrian immigrants. The study,
 which was conducted both online and face-to-face, investigated the general digital literacy status of Syrian
 immigrants and their digital literacy levels according to variables such as gender, age, education level,
 income level, access to the internet, and Turkish citizenship status. Both at the general level and at the level
 of all variables, the digital literacy of Syrian immigrants was determined to be “Below Average / Weak”.
 Especially in European countries, public policies have started to be established to increase the digital literacy
 levels of isolated groups such as immigrants. In order to overcome the immigrant integration problem in
 Turkey through digital communication, public policies should be established to increase the digital literacy
 levels of immigrants.

Health of people with selected citizenships in Germany: results from the interview survey GEDA Fokus

Abstract Background Health chances and risks of people with a history of migration vary according to a wide range of social, migration-related as well as structural factors. Aim of this contribution is to describe the health of people with selected citizenships living in Germany on the basis of various health indicators from the field of non-communicable diseases and to identify relevant determinants of the respective outcomes. Methods Analyses are based on data from the multilingual and multimodal interview survey GEDA Fokus, which was conducted from 11/21 until 05/22 among 18- to 79-year-old people with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian or Turkish citizenship living in Germany. Poisson regressions were used to calculate prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals to examine the association between the individual indicators (chronic diseases or long-term health problems, coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus and depression) and various social as well as migration-related characteristics. Results In particular, older age, low income, a longer duration of stay, a low sense of belonging to society in Germany and self-reported experiences of discrimination in everyday life are associated with higher prevalence of all the health outcomes. Conclusions Given the importance of subjective sense of belonging to the society in Germany and self-reported experiences of discrimination for the health outcomes studied, the results point to health inequalities among people of selected citizenships that are partly caused by mechanisms of social exclusion. Key messages • Low income, self-reported experiences of discrimination in everyday life and a lower sense of belonging to society in Germany are associated with increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases. • Social and structural exclusion mechanisms must be sustainably dismantled in order to ensure health equity.

Gesundheit von Menschen mit ausgewählten Staatsangehörigkeiten in Deutschland: Prävalenzen nichtübertragbarer Erkrankungen und damit assoziierte soziale sowie migrationsbezogene Faktoren

ZusammenfassungHintergrundGesundheitliche Chancen und Risiken werden durch eine Vielzahl von Faktoren beeinflusst. Der Beitrag zielt darauf ab, die Gesundheit von Menschen mit ausgewählten Staatsangehörigkeiten anhand nichtübertragbarer Erkrankungen (chronische Krankheit oder lang andauerndes gesundheitliches Problem allgemein, koronare Herzkrankheit, Diabetes mellitus, Depression) zu beschreiben und assoziierte Faktoren zu identifizieren.MethodenDie Analysen basieren auf Daten der multimodalen, mehrsprachigen Befragungsstudie „Gesundheit in Deutschland aktuell: Fokus“ (GEDA Fokus), die unter 18- bis 79-Jährigen mit italienischer, kroatischer, polnischer, syrischer oder türkischer Staatsangehörigkeit deutschlandweit durchgeführt wurde (11/2021–05/2022). Um Zusammenhänge zwischen den nichtübertragbaren Erkrankungen und sozialen sowie migrationsbezogenen Merkmalen zu untersuchen, wurden Prevalence Ratios und 95 %-Konfidenzintervalle mittels Poisson-Regressionen berechnet.ErgebnisseInsbesondere ein geringes Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zur Gesellschaft in Deutschland sowie selbstberichtete Diskriminierungserfahrungen im Alltag sind mit höheren Prävalenzen einer chronischen Erkrankung oder eines lang andauernden gesundheitlichen Problems und – gemäß selbstberichteten ärztlichen Diagnosen – mit einer Depression sowie zum Teil mit einer koronaren Herzerkrankung und einem Diabetes assoziiert.DiskussionDie Ergebnisse verweisen auf gesundheitliche Ungleichheiten unter Menschen mit ausgewählten Staatsangehörigkeiten, die – vor dem Hintergrund der Bedeutung des subjektiven Zugehörigkeitsgefühls zur Gesellschaft in Deutschland und der selbstberichteten Diskriminierungserfahrungen für die betrachteten nichtübertragbaren Erkrankungen – möglicherweise auf eingeschränkte Teilhabechancen und gesellschaftliche Ausschlussmechanismen hindeuten.

Citizenship by investment in Türkiye: Who buys citizenship and why?

ABSTRACT This study investigates the motives of those who want to acquire Turkish citizenship through investment. We conducted in-depth interviews with 45 people consisting of new citizens and intermediaries who assist foreigners in housing sales and citizenship applications in eight different provinces. Our study reveals that people from countries geographically close to Türkiye and global investors show significant interest in the citizenship program, which enables them to become Turkish citizens through investment. Importantly, we found that the tendency for investment is influenced by Türkiye’s bilateral relations with investors’ countries of origin, the relatively lower monetary barrier for investment encourages the migration of low-capital groups in search of a better life, and citizenship by investment facilitates capital transfer between countries.

Syrians under Temporary Protection and Their Acquision of Turkish Citizenship

Syrians under Temporary Protection and Their Acquision of Turkish Citizenship

German Health Update Fokus (GEDA Fokus) among Residents with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian, or Turkish Citizenship in Germany: Protocol for a Multilingual Mixed-Mode Interview Survey.

Germany has a long history of migration. In 2020, more than 1 person in every 4 people had a statistically defined, so-called migration background in Germany, meaning that the person or at least one of their parents was born with a citizenship other than German citizenship. People with a history of migration are not represented proportionately to the population within public health monitoring at the Robert Koch Institute, thus impeding differentiated analyses of migration and health. To develop strategies for improving the inclusion of people with a history of migration in health surveys, we conducted a feasibility study in 2018. The lessons learned were implemented in the health interview survey German Health Update (Gesundheit in Deutschland aktuell [GEDA]) Fokus, which was conducted among people with selected citizenships representing the major migrant groups in Germany. GEDA Fokus aimed to collect comprehensive data on the health status and social, migration-related, and structural factors among people with selected citizenships to enable differentiated explanations of the associations between migration-related aspects and their impact on migrant health. GEDA Fokus is an interview survey among people with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian, or Turkish citizenship living in Germany aged 18-79 years, with a targeted sample size of 1200 participants per group. The gross sample of 33,436 people was drawn from the residents' registration offices of 99 German municipalities based on citizenship. Sequentially, multiple modes of administration were offered. The questionnaire was available for self-administration (web-based and paper-based); in larger municipalities, personal or phone interviews were possible later on. Study documents and the questionnaire were bilingual-in German and the respective translation language depending on the citizenship. Data were collected from November 2021 to May 2022. Overall, 6038 respondents participated in the survey, of whom 2983 (49.4%) were female. The median age was 39 years; the median duration of residence in Germany was 10 years, with 19.69% (1189/6038) of the sample being born in Germany. The overall response rate was 18.4% (American Association for Public Opinion Research [AAPOR] response rate 1) and was 6.8% higher in the municipalities where personal interviews were offered (19.3% vs 12.5%). Overall, 78.12% (4717/6038) of the participants self-administered the questionnaire, whereas 21.88% (1321/6038) took part in personal interviews. In total, 41.85% (2527/6038) of the participants answered the questionnaire in the German language only, 16.69% (1008/6038) exclusively used the translation. Offering different modes of administration, as well as multiple study languages, enabled us to recruit a heterogeneous sample of people with a history of migration. The data collected will allow differentiated analyses of the role and interplay of migration-related and social determinants of health and their impact on the health status of people with selected citizenships. DERR1-10.2196/43503.

Health of people with selected citizenships: results of the study GEDA Fokus.

The health situation of people with a history of migration is influenced by a variety of factors. This article provides an overview of the health of people with selected citizenships using various indicators. The analyses are based on the survey 'German Health Update: Fokus (GEDA Fokus)', which was conducted from November 2021 to May 2022 among people with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian and Turkish citizenship. The prevalence for each health outcome is presented and differentiated by sociodemographic and migration-related characteristics. Poisson regressions were performed to identify relevant factors influencing health situation. Self-assessed general health, the presence of depressive symptoms, prevalence of current smoking and the utilisation of general and specialist healthcare differed according to various factors considered here. In addition to sociodemographic determinants, the sense of belonging to society in Germany and self-reported experiences of discrimination were particularly associated with health outcomes. This article highlights the heterogeneity of the health situation of people with a history of migration and points to the need for further analyses to identify the reasons for health inequalities.

COVID-19 vaccination status among people with selected citizenships: results of the study GEDA Fokus.

the COVID-19 vaccination offers protection against severe disease progression. Data show that people with a history of migration are less likely to be vaccinated against COVID-19 than people without a history of migration, but are at increased risk of infection. Data were used from the GEDA Fokus interview survey (November 2021 - May 2022), which included people living in Germany with Croatian, Italian, Polish, Syrian or Turkish citizenship (n=5,495). In addition to bivariate analyses, Poisson regressions were used to examine the association between uptake of at least one COVID-19 vaccination and sociodemographic, health- and migration-related factors. 90.0% of participants reported having received at least one COVID-19 vaccination. Having visited a general practitioner or specialist in the past 12 months, living in Germany for 31 years or more, and having a greater sense of belonging to society in Germany were associated with vaccination uptake in bivariate analyses. Regression analysis showed that older people and those with higher education were more likely to be vaccinated. Sociodemographic factors are associated with uptake of the COVID-19 vaccine among individuals with selected citizenships. Low-threshold information and vaccination offers are important to ensure equal access to vaccination.

Iranians as real estate purchasers and international students: Transformation of Turkish-Iranian migration corridor

ABSTRACT In case of migration of Iranian nationals, while Mediterranean countries are hesitant to accept Iranian undergraduate students and do not admit applications from Iranian citizens due to sanctions, Turkey has increasingly been preferred by Iranian students and individuals who purchase real estate in Turkey in return of residency permit in the last decade. By revealing the South-South migration in context of capital intensified migration in Turkey, the article argues that the introduction of citizenship-by-investment category in 2016 regulating the exceptional acquisition of Turkish citizenship and increasing quotas for international students have motivated more Iranian students to apply undergraduate programs in Turkey and Iranian nationals to buy real estate in Turkey. This transformation in Turkish migration domain isin line with the neoliberal logic and demands of market by commodifying both citizenship and education. In unfolding motivations of Iranians, the research utilizes qualitative data collection technique in which I conduct twenty-five semi-structured interviews with Iranian undergraduate students and real estate purchasers. Interviews suggest that the mobility of Iranian students and investors offers a unique example in the Mediterranean region as Turkey has become a plausible option for Iranian nationals who can obtain an alternative way to exit from Iran.

United in Patriarchy? A View from across the (Aegean) Pond

United in Patriarchy? A View from across the (Aegean) Pond

Suggestions for Overcoming Communication Barriers in Doctor and Patient Communication with Efficient Communication

Having had to desert their countries because of war, which brought political oppression, and lack of life safety, many Syrians became refugees in Turkey for protection and they have struggled with many hardships (Yaylacı and Karakuş, 2015, p. 238). In the beginning, they had lived in shelter camps in the Southern Eastern Anatolian region of Turkey. Later on, many of them started to contribute into the workforce by migrating to the big cities. Today, some of them have even received the Turkish citizenship. Struggling with certain diseases such as tuberculosis, measles, poliomyelitis and leishmania, these Syrians applied to the Turkish hospitals in order to regain their health (Sezen et al., 2018). This paper aims to show the communication problems that are experienced between doctors and patients in the first encounter at hospitals from the perspective of Syrian refugees who have become the latest immigrants by gaining citizenship. It also suggests some solutions in how to overcome these communication barriers during the first interaction experienced with doctors. The research used literature review as the method and the results show that the partnership model, two-way communication, active listening, making empathy and giving feedback are essential elements for effective communication.

Life satisfaction levels and socio-economic status of Syrian refuges: A case study of Konya province

2011 yılından itibaren ülkelerinde yaşanan iç savaş nedeniyle Türkiye’ye göç etmek zorunda kalarak sınırdan girdikten sonra ülkemizin değişik illerine dağılan Suriyeli mültecilerin geçen süre içerisinde sosyoekonomik durumlarının ne olduğu, nasıl yaşadıkları, nelerle meşgul oldukları, savaşın bitmesi durumunda ülkelerine geri dönmeyi düşünüp düşünmedikleri vb. durumları merak konusudur.
 Türkiye’ye Hatay, Kilis, Gaziantep ve Şanlıurfa gibi sınır illerinden girerek buralarda belli bir süre yaşadıktan sonra Konya’ya gelen ve burada kendilerine yeni bir hayat kurarak yaşamlarına devam eden Suriyeli mülteciler, zamanla yaşadıkları mahallelerde çoğunluk haline gelmiş, buralarda ülkelerinde ne işlerle iştiğal ediyorlarsa benzer bir yaşamı buralarda da kurarak sosyoekonomik faaliyetlerine devam etmişlerdir. 
 İşgücü piyasasında temininde zorluk yaşanan ara insan gücünün mültecilerce karşılandığı, kalfalık, çıraklık vb. işlerde elaman temininde güçlük yaşanması nedeniyle genellikle Suriyeli mültecilerin tercih edildiği, özellikle Halep ve kırsalından gelen Türkmen mültecilerin son derece başarılı ve tercih edilir olduklarını görüyoruz.
 Bu çalışma ile ondokuz soru çerçevesinde Suriyeli mültecilerin Türkiye’ye ne zaman geldikleri, ne iş yaptıkları, medeni durumları, kaç çocuklarının olduğu, çocuklarının okula gidip gitmedikleri, komşuluk ilişkileri, Türk vatandaşlığı isteyip istemedikleri, çalışma izin belgelerinin olup olmadığı, Suriye’ye dönmeyi isteyip istemedikleri ve çalışma hayatı ile ilgili fikirleri vb. durumlarının incelenmesine çalışılmıştır.
 Mülteci mevzuatı ile bir takım güvencelere sahip olsalarda özellikle sosyokültürel özellikleri nedeniyle ülkemizi tercih ederek hayatlarını burada sürdürmeye çalışan bu insanların yaşadıkları sorunlar ve düşünceleri incelenmeye değer olup, bugün ve yarınlarıyla ilgili bizzat kendi fikirleri son derece önemli ve yol göstericidir.

The influence of social support on subjective health among people with selected citizenships

Abstract Background Social support as a psychosocial resource has a significant impact on health. However, data on the association between social support and subjective health among people with a migration history is scarce. The aim of this analysis was to examine this association among a sample of people with selected citizenships in consideration of socio-demographic and migration-related factors. Methods Data from the project “Improving Health Monitoring in Migrant Populations (IMIRA)” was used, including people with Croatian, Polish, Romanian, Syrian, and Turkish citizenship. Descriptive and logistic regression analyses were conducted to analyse the effect of socio-demographic (gender, age, socio-economic status (SES)) and migration-related factors (length of residence, residence status, German language proficiency) on the association between social support and subjective health (very good/good). Results A total of 60.8% of participants with a low level of social support, indicated good subjective health in comparison to 78.8% among those who reported strong support. Participants with a length of residence of over 20 years (aOR=0,29) and (very) poor German language proficiency (aOR=0,39) were less likely to report good health. A high SES had the strongest impact on good subjective health (aOR=5,42). Conclusions Overall, the results confirm the findings for the general population in a sample of people with selected citizenships. The fact that people with a migration history more often face structural and health related barriers and that the existence of resources is helpful in overcoming these, a differentiated consideration of the relationship between social support and subjective health seems necessary in order to establish targeted prevention measures. Key messages • Among people with selected citizenships, good social support has a positive impact on subjective health. • Results remain consistent when considering socio-economic and migration-related factors.

‘Two Homelands and None’: Belonging, Alienation, and Everyday Citizenship with the Expatriated Greeks of Turkey

Abstract For the expatriated Greeks of Istanbul and Imbros – some of whom have Greek citizenship, some Turkish – citizenship is neither an irrelevance nor a panacea. Turkish citizenship provided limited protection for ethnic Greeks in Turkey, and Greek citizenship could only go so far to ease the burdens of their ultimate emigration to Greece. Moreover, their expressions of self and identity are altogether more complicated and malleable than the apparent fixity and dichotomousness of statism. Nevertheless, citizenship looms large in their experiences, in both pragmatic and affective dimensions. The acquisition, loss and performance of citizenship – even the very materiality of identity documents – are intimately connected to expatriate efforts to navigate the everyday experience of migration and belonging. Whilst the significance of citizenship thus goes far beyond mere words on an official document, these formal aspects of citizenship are nevertheless a part of, not something apart from, the lived experience of citizenship.

An illiberal inclusion? The AKP’s politics of exceptional citizenship

ABSTRACT In the last several years, the AKP government in Turkey has granted exceptional citizenship to more than 200,000 Syrian refugees and 19,000 foreign investors, mostly from the Middle East. This study defines the AKP’s recent policy of granting exceptional citizenship as an illiberal inclusion, which is a mode of neoliberal and particularistic inclusion without extending the eligibility and rights of regular migrants and refugees. By means of exceptional citizenship, the AKP transforms the politics of granting particularistic access to Turkish citizenship, from one characterized by an ethno-religious inclusion towards another defined by more explicit religious inclusion entangled with its neo-Ottomanist domestic and foreign policy goals. The study also suggests that the current state of granting exceptional citizenship is intermingled with the AKP’s authoritarian neoliberalism, and the structural centralization of executive power under the current presidential system.

Religion and the Cold War Politics: The Election of Athenagoras as Patriarch

A critical development during the years of World War II was the change of the USSR’s policy towards the Church and its attempt to make use of the influence of the Moscow Patriarchate on the Orthodox world. This move of the USSR mobilized the United States, which assumed that the Soviet influence in the Balkan countries and the Middle East would be prevented by strengthening the Patriarchate of İstanbul. The US proposed Athenagoras, the Archbishop of North and South America, for the leadership of Phanar; a figure who was expected to be effective in the struggle with Moscow. This proposal was accepted by Turkey and Greece. However, Athenagoras’ election as patriarch was not easily achieved both because he did not have Turkish citizenship and because of the cautious attitude demonstrated by Turkey during the selection process. At the end of the election process during which the United States has taken a cautious stance with Turkey, Athenagoras was elected as the Patriarch. As soon as he started the job, with his pro-US rhetoric and close relations with the Turkish official circles, the new Patriarch showed that he was a cleric who could meet the expectations. Being the religious pillar of the Truman doctrine, as he himself stated, Athenagoras’ efforts were also welcomed by the US and Turkish authorities. At the same time, Athenagoras's pro-Turkish and pro-American stance has caused discomfort within the Greek community over time, leading to some reactions against him.