Tungsten Anode Research Articles

The anodic emitter effect and its inversion demonstrated by temperature measurements at doped and undoped tungsten electrodes

The admixture of a small amount of emitter oxides, e.g. , or to tungsten generates the so-called emitter effect. It reduces the work function of tungsten cathodes, that are applied in high intensity discharge (HID) lamps. After leaving the electrode bulk and moving to the surface, a monolayer of Th, La, or Ce atoms is formed on the surface, which reduces the effective work function ϕ. Depending on the coverage of the electrode, the effective reduction in ϕ is subjected to the thermal desorption of the monolayer from the hot electrode surface. The thermal desorption of emitter atoms from the cathode is compensated not only by the supply from the interior of the electrode and by surface diffusion of the emitter material to its tip, but also to a large extent by a repatriation of the emitter ions from the plasma by the strong electric field in front of the cathode. Yet, an emitter ion current from the arc discharge to the anode may only be present, if the anode is cold enough to refrain from thermionic emission. Therefore, the ability of emitter oxides to reduce the temperature of tungsten anodes is only given for a moderate temperature so that the thermal desorption is low and an additional ion current is present in front of the anode. A higher electrode temperature leads to their evaporation and to an inversion of the emitter effect, which increases the temperature of the respective anodes in comparison with pure tungsten anodes. Within this article, the emitter effect of doped tungsten anodes and the transition to its inversion is investigated for thoriated, lanthanated, and ceriated tungsten electrodes by measurements of the electrode temperature in dependence on the discharge current. It is shown for a lanthanated and a ceriated anode that the emitter effect is sustained by an ion current at anode temperatures at which the thermal evaporation of emitter material is completed.

Influence of field ionization on the efficiency of neutron generation

The results of experiments on neutron generation caused by nanosecond discharges in a deuterium medium are presented. The experiments are performed using two types of potential electrodes (anodes). One of them is fabricated from steel foil, and the other is composed of tungsten wires with split ends. In both cases, a deuterium-saturated zirconium plate is employed as a flat grounded cathode. With a tungsten anode, deuterium ions generated by field ionization are demonstrated to constitute the determining part of ions involved in the acceleration process and the neutron yield arising from the reaction 2H(d, n)3He is about four times greater than that inherent to the steel-foil anode. In this case, the maximum neutron yield is 1.2 × 104 neutron/ shot, and the duration of neutron emission from the cathode is 1.5 ns.

Effect of Target Angle and Thickness on the Heel Effect and X-ray Intensity Characteristics for 70 kV X-ray Tube Target

To investigate the optimum x-ray tube design for the dental radiology, factors affecting x-ray beam characteristics such as tungsten target thickness and anode angle were evaluated. Another goal of the study was to addresses the anode heel effect and off-axis spectra for different target angles. MCN...

A feasibility study for anatomical noise reduction in dual-energy chest digital tomosynthesis

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Thus, early diagnosis is of considerable importance. For early screening of lung cancer, computed tomography (CT) has been used as the gold standard. Chest digital tomosynthesis (CDT) is a recently introduced modality for lung cancer screening with a relatively low radiation dose compared to CT. The dual energy material decomposition method has been proposed for better detection of pulmonary nodules by means of reducing anatomical noise. In this study, the possibility of material decomposition in CDT was tested by both a simulation study and an experimental study using a CDT prototype. The Geant4 application for tomographic emission (GATE) v6 and tungsten anode spectral model using interpolating polynomials (TASMIP) codes were used for the simulation study to create simulated phantom shapes consisting of five inner cylinders filled with different densities of bone and airequivalent materials. Furthermore, the CDT prototype system and human phantom chest were used for the experimental study. CDT scan in both the simulation and experimental studies was performed with linear movement and 21 projection images were obtained over a 30 degree angular range with a 1.5 degree angular interval. To obtain materialselective images, a projectionbased energy subtraction technique was applied to high and low energy images. The resultant simulation images showed that dual-energy reconstruction could achieve an approximately 32% higher contrast to noise ratio (CNR) in images and the difference in CNR value according to bone density was significant compared to single energy CDT. Additionally, image artifacts were effectively corrected in dual energy CDT simulation studies. Likewise the experimental study with dual energy produced clear images of lung fields and bone structure by removing unnecessary anatomical structures. Dual energy tomosynthesis is a new technique; therefore, there is little guidance regarding its integration into clinical practice and this study can be used to improve the diagnostic efficiency of lung field and spinal bone screening using CDT.

Comparison of air kerma measurements for tungsten anode based mammography x-ray beam qualities (EURAMET.RI(I)-S4.1)

A comparison of the air kerma standards for x-radiation qualities used in mammography was performed between the PTB and the IAEA. Two reference-class ionization chamber types Radcal RC6M and Magna A650 of the IAEA and tungsten anode based beam qualities with Mo and Al external filtrations (W+Mo, W+Al) established at both laboratories were selected for the comparison. The calibration coefficients, N K_air, were determined for the transfer chambers at the PTB in May 2015 and before and after this at the IAEA Dosimetry Laboratory. The results show good agreement, to be well within the 0.55 % standard uncertainty of the comparison. Correction factors to determine N K_air for these beam qualities based on calibration in RQR-M mammography beam qualities, established according to the IEC 61267 standard, were also calculated for the Radcal RC6M, 10X5-6M, and Magna A650 types of chambers.Main textTo reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/.The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).

Monte Carlo derivation of filtered tungsten anode X-ray spectra for dose computation in digital mammography.

ObjectiveDerive filtered tungsten X-ray spectra used in digital mammography systems by means of Monte Carlo simulations.Materials and MethodsFiltered spectra for rhodium filter were obtained for tube potentials between 26 and 32 kV. The half-value layer (HVL) of simulated filtered spectra were compared with those obtained experimentally with a solid state detector Unfors model 8202031-H Xi R/F & MAM Detector Platinum and 8201023-C Xi Base unit Platinum Plus w mAs in a Hologic Selenia Dimensions system using a direct radiography mode.ResultsCalculated HVL values showed good agreement as compared with those obtained experimentally. The greatest relative difference between the Monte Carlo calculated HVL values and experimental HVL values was 4%.ConclusionThe results show that the filtered tungsten anode X-ray spectra and the EGSnrc Monte Carlo code can be used for mean glandular dose determination in mammography.

Semi-empirical model for fluorescence lines evaluation in diagnostic x-ray beams

Diagnostic x-ray beams are composed of bremsstrahlung and discrete fluorescence lines. The aim of this study is the development of an efficient model for the evaluation of the fluorescence lines. The most important electron ionization models are analyzed and implemented. The model results were compared with experimental data and with other independent spectra presented in the literature. The implemented peak models allow the discrimination between direct and indirect radiation emitted from tungsten anodes. The comparison with the independent literature spectra indicated a good agreement.

Mean glandular dose coefficients (DgN) for x-ray spectra used in contemporary breast imaging systems

To develop tables of normalized glandular dose coefficients for a range of anode–filter combinations and tube voltages used in contemporary breast imaging systems.Previously published mono-energetic values were used with various spectra to mathematically compute coefficients. The tungsten anode spectra from TASMICS were used; molybdenum and rhodium anode-spectra were generated using MCNPX Monte Carlo code. The spectra were filtered with various thicknesses of Al, Rh, Mo or Cu. An initial half value layer (HVL) calculation was made using the anode and filter material. A range of the HVL values was produced with the addition of small thicknesses of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) as a surrogate for the breast compression paddle, to produce a range of HVL values at each tube voltage. Using a spectral weighting method, coefficients for the generated spectra were calculated for breast glandular densities of 0%, 12.5%, 25%, 37.5%, 50% and 100% for a range of compressed breast thicknesses from 3 to 8 cm.Eleven tables of normalized glandular dose () coefficients were produced for the following anode/filter combinations: W + 50 μm Ag, W + 500 μm Al, W + 700 μm Al, W + 200 μm Cu, W + 300 μm Cu, W + 50 μm Rh, Mo + 400 μm Cu, Mo + 30 μm Mo, Mo + 25 μm Rh, Rh + 400 μm Cu and Rh + 25 μm Rh. Where possible, these results were compared to previously published values and were found to be on average less than 2% different than previously reported values.Over 200 pages of coefficients were computed for modeled x-ray system spectra that are used in a number of new breast imaging applications. The reported values were found to be in excellent agreement when compared to published values.

PVAL breast phantom for dual energy calcification detection

Microcalcifications are the main indicator for breast cancer. Dual energy imaging can enhance the detectability of calcifications by suppressing the tissue background. Two digital images are obtained using two different spectra, for the low- and high-energy respectively, and a weighted subtracted image is produced. In this study, a dual energy method for the detection of the minimum breast microcalcification thickness was developed. The used integrated prototype system consisted of a modified tungsten anode X-ray tube combined with a high resolution CMOS sensor. The breast equivalent phantom used was an elastically compressible gel of polyvinyl alcohol (PVAL). Hydroxyapatite was used to simulate microcalcifications with thicknesses ranging from 50 to 500 μm. The custom made phantom was irradiated with 40kVp and 70kVp. Tungsten (W) anode spectra filtered with 100μm Cadmium and 1000pm Copper, for the low- and high-energy, respectively. Microcalcifications with thicknesses 300μm or higher can be detected with mean glandular dose (MGD) of 1.62mGy.

Effect of the Concentration on the X-ray Luminescence Efficiency of a Cadmium Selenide/Zinc Sulfide (CdSe/ZnS) Quantum Dot Nanoparticle Solution

In the current study preliminary results on the luminescence efficiency (LE) of toluene dissolved Cadmium Selenide/Zinc Sulfide (CdSe/ZnS, Sigma-Aldrich, Lumidot 694622) quantum dot samples (QDs) after exposure to X-rays of variable radiation flux are shown. The distinctive influence of the weight over volume (w/v) concentration of the samples in LE was investigated. The light emission of the QDs was additionally measured after UV irradiation. The distribution of the emitted light was symmetrical with a maximum at 590 nm. The w/v concentration of the QDs varied between 7.1×10-5 mg/mL to 28.4×10-5 mg/mL. The samples were handled in a cubic 12.5×12.5×45mm3 quartz cuvette. Each sample was excited under X-ray irradiation, in the energy range from 50 to 130 kVp using a BMI General Medical Merate tube with rotating Tungsten anode and inherent filtration equivalent to 2 mm Al. The X-ray LE, induced by the 28.4×10-5 mg/mL QDs found higher, however, the distinction was vague in the highly concentrated samples. The maximum efficiency was obtained at the 90 kVp for QDs with 21.3×10-5 mg/mL w/v concentration. In the high energy range (120-130 kVp) all concentration levels exhibited comparable X-ray induced LE. The luminescence properties of the investigated QDs appear promising for X-ray detection applications.

Optimum filter selection for Dual Energy X-ray Applications through Analytical Modeling

In this simulation study, an analytical model was used in order to determine the optimal acquisition parameters for a dual energy breast imaging system. The modeled detector system, consisted of a 33.91mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Tb scintillator screen, placed in direct contact with a high resolution CMOS sensor. Tungsten anode X-ray spectra, filtered with various filter materials and filter thicknesses were examined for both the low- and high-energy beams, resulting in 3375 combinations. The selection of these filters was based on their K absorption edge (K-edge filtering). The calcification signal-to-noise ratio (SNRtc) and the mean glandular dose (MGD) were calculated. The total mean glandular dose was constrained to be within acceptable levels. Optimization was based on the maximization of the SNRtc/MGD ratio. The results showed that the optimum spectral combination was 40kVp with added beam filtration of 100 μm Ag and 70kVp Cu filtered spectrum of 1000 μm for the low- and high-energy, respectively. The minimum detectable calcification size was 150 μm. Simulations demonstrate that this dual energy X-ray technique could enhance breast calcification detection.

X-ray Luminescence Efficiency of GAGG:Ce Single Crystal Scintillators for use in Tomographic Medical Imaging Systems

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate different scintillator crystal samples, with a cross section of 3×3mm2 and various thicknesses ranging from 4mm up to 20mm, of the new mixed Gd3Al2Ga3O12:Ce (GAGG:Ce) scintillator material under X-ray irradiation, for potential applications in Tomographic Medical Imaging systems. Evaluation was performed by determining the X-ray luminescence efficiency (XLE) (emitted light energy flux over incident X-ray energy flux) in energies employed in general X-ray imaging. For the luminescence efficiency measurements, the scintillator samples were exposed to X-rays using a BMI General Medical Merate tube, with rotating Tungsten anode and inherent filtration equivalent to 2 mm Al. X-ray tube voltages between 50 to 130 kV were selected. An additional 20 mm filtration was introduced to the beam to simulate beam quality alternation equivalent to a human body. The emitted light energy flux measurements were performed using an experimental set up comprising a light integration sphere coupled to an EMI 9798B photomultiplier tube which was connected to a Cary 401 vibrating reed electrometer. The GAGG:Ce sample with dimensions 3×3×10 mm3 exhibited higher XLE values, in the whole X- ray energy range examined. XLE value equal to 0.013 was recorded for this crystal at 130 kVp - a setting frequently used in Computed Tomography applications.

Performance of low-cost X-ray area detectors with consumer digital cameras

We constructed X-ray detectors using consumer-grade digital cameras coupled to commercial X-ray phosphors. Several detector configurations were tested against the Varian PaxScan 3024M (Varian 3024M) digital flat panel detector. These include consumer cameras (Nikon D800, Nikon D700, and Nikon D3X) coupled to a green emission phosphor in a back-lit, normal incidence geometry, and in a front-lit, oblique incidence geometry. We used the photon transfer method to evaluate detector sensitivity and dark noise, and the edge test method to evaluate their spatial resolution. The essential specifications provided by our evaluation include discrete charge events captured per mm2 per unit exposure surface dose, dark noise in equivalents of charge events per pixel, and spatial resolution in terms of the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the detector`s line spread function (LSF). Measurements were performed using a tungsten anode X-ray tube at 50 kVp. The results show that the home-built detectors provide better sensitivity and lower noise than the commercial flat panel detector, and some have better spatial resolution. The trade-off is substantially smaller imaging areas. Given their much lower costs, these home-built detectors are attractive options for prototype development of low-dose imaging applications.

Laboratory-based X-ray reflectometer for multilayer characterization in the 15-150 keV energy band.

A laboratory-based X-ray reflectometer has been developed to measure the performance of hard X-ray multilayer coatings at their operational X-ray energies and incidence angles. The instrument uses a sealed-tube X-ray source with a tungsten anode that can operate up to 160 kV to provide usable radiation in the 15-150 keV energy band. Two sets of adjustable tungsten carbide slit assemblies, spaced 4.1 m apart, are used to produce a low-divergence white beam, typically set to 40 μm × 800 μm in size at the sample. Multilayer coatings under test are held flat using a vacuum chuck and are mounted at the center of a high-resolution goniometer used for precise angular positioning of the sample and detector; additionally, motorized linear stages provide both vertical and horizontal adjustments of the sample position relative to the incident beam. A CdTe energy-sensitive detector, located behind a third adjustable slit, is used in conjunction with pulse-shaping electronics and a multi-channel analyzer to capture both the incident and reflected spectra; the absolute reflectance of the coating under test is computed as the ratio of the two spectra. The instrument's design, construction, and operation are described in detail, and example results are presented obtained with both periodic, narrow-band and depth-graded, wide-band hard X-ray multilayer coatings.

Generation of neutrons in a nanosecond low-pressure discharge in deuterium

The neutron yield is measured in a high-voltage Townsend discharge in deuterium with a hollow cylinder made of tungsten or steel used as a polarizing anode of electrons. A flat metallic plate covered by a layer of deuterated zirconium is applied as a grounded cathode. The highest yield of neutrons in the reaction 2H(d,n)3He, ∼1.2 × 104 neutrons per pulse, is observed in the case of the tungsten anode at a deuterium pressure on the order of 100 Pa. The pulsed neutron flux duration estimated with data obtained from a scintillation detector is roughly equal to 1.5 ns.

Optimization of breast cancer detection in Dual Energy X-ray Mammography using a CMOS imaging detector

Dual energy mammography has the ability to improve the detection of microcalcifications leading to early diagnosis of breast cancer. In this simulation study, a prototype dual energy mammography system, using a CMOS based imaging detector with different X-ray spectra, was modeled. The device consists of a 33.91 mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Tb scintillator screen, placed in direct contact with the sensor, with a pixel size of 22.5 μm. Various filter materials and tube voltages of a Tungsten (W) anode for both the low and high energy were examined. The selection of the filters applied to W spectra was based on their K- edges (K-edge filtering). Hydroxyapatite (HAp) was used to simulate microcalcifications. Calcification signal-to-noise ratio (SNRtc) was calculated for entrance surface dose within the acceptable levels of conventional mammography. Optimization was based on the maximization of SNRtc while minimizing the entrance dose. The best compromise between SNRtc value and dose was provided by a 35kVp X-ray spectrum with added beam filtration of 100μm Pd and a 70kVp Yb filtered spectrum of 800 μm for the low and high energy, respectively. Computer simulation results show that a SNRtc value of 3.6 can be achieved for a calcification size of 200 μm. Compared with previous studies, this method can improve detectability of microcalcifications.

Modeling indirect detectors for performance optimization of a digital mammographic detector for dual energy applications

Dual Energy imaging is a promising method for visualizing masses and microcalcifications in digital mammography. The advent of two X-ray energies (low and high) requires a suitable detector. The scope of this work is to determine optimum detector parameters for dual energy applications. The detector was modeled through the linear cascaded (LCS) theory. It was assumed that a phosphor material was coupled to a CMOS photodetector (indirect detection). The pixel size was 22.5 μm. The phosphor thickness was allowed to vary between 20mg/cm2 and 160mg/cm2 The phosphor materials examined where Gd2O2S:Tb and Gd2O2S:Eu. Two Tungsten (W) anode X-ray spectra at 35 kV (filtered with 100 μm Palladium (Pd)) and 70 kV (filtered with 800 pm Ytterbium (Yb)), corresponding to low and high energy respectively, were considered to be incident on the detector. For each combination the contrast- to-noise ratio (CNR) and the detector optical gain (DOG), showing the sensitivity of the detector, were calculated. The 40 mg/cm2 and 70 mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Tb exhibited the higher DOG values for the low and high energy correspondingly. Higher CNR between microcalcification and mammary gland exhibited the 70mg/cm2 and the 100mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Tb for the low and the high energy correspondingly.

Alternate Anodes for the Electrolytic Reduction of UO2

The electrolytic reduction process of UO2 employs a platinum anode and a stainless steel cathode in molten LiCl-LiO2 maintained at 973 K (700 °C). The degradation of platinum under the severely oxidizing conditions encountered during the process is an issue of concern. In this study, Inconel 600 and 718, stainless steel alloy 316, tungsten, nickel, molybdenum, and titanium, were investigated though electrochemical polarization techniques, electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to serve as potential anode materials. Of the various materials investigated, only tungsten exhibited sufficient stability at the required potential in the molten electrolyte. Tungsten anodes were further studied in molten LiCl-LiO2 electrolyte containing 2, 4, and 6 wt pct of Li2O. In LiCl-2 wt pct Li2O tungsten was found to be sufficiently stable to both oxidation and microstructural changes and the stability is attributed to the formation of a lithium-intercalated tungsten oxide surface film. Increase in the concentration of Li2O was found to lead to accelerated corrosion of the anode, in conjunction with the formation of a peroxotungstate oxide film.

Characterization of energy response for photon-counting detectors using x-ray fluorescence.

To investigate the feasibility of characterizing a Si strip photon-counting detector using x-ray fluorescence. X-ray fluorescence was generated by using a pencil beam from a tungsten anode x-ray tube with 2 mm Al filtration. Spectra were acquired at 90° from the primary beam direction with an energy-resolved photon-counting detector based on an edge illuminated Si strip detector. The distances from the source to target and the target to detector were approximately 19 and 11 cm, respectively. Four different materials, containing silver (Ag), iodine (I), barium (Ba), and gadolinium (Gd), were placed in small plastic containers with a diameter of approximately 0.7 cm for x-ray fluorescence measurements. Linear regression analysis was performed to derive the gain and offset values for the correlation between the measured fluorescence peak center and the known fluorescence energies. The energy resolutions and charge-sharing fractions were also obtained from analytical fittings of the recorded fluorescence spectra. An analytical model, which employed four parameters that can be determined from the fluorescence calibration, was used to estimate the detector response function. Strong fluorescence signals of all four target materials were recorded with the investigated geometry for the Si strip detector. The average gain and offset of all pixels for detector energy calibration were determined to be 6.95 mV/keV and -66.33 mV, respectively. The detector's energy resolution remained at approximately 2.7 keV for low energies, and increased slightly at 45 keV. The average charge-sharing fraction was estimated to be 36% within the investigated energy range of 20-45 keV. The simulated detector output based on the proposed response function agreed well with the experimental measurement. The performance of a spectral imaging system using energy-resolved photon-counting detectors is very dependent on the energy calibration of the detector. The proposed x-ray fluorescence technique offers an accurate and efficient way to calibrate the energy response of a photon-counting detector.

X-ray optics of gold nanoparticles.

Gold nanoparticles have been investigated as contrast agents for traditional x-ray medical procedures, utilizing the strong absorption characteristics of the nanoparticles to enhance the contrast of the detected x-ray image. Here we use the Kramers-Kronig relation for complex atomic scattering factors to find the real and imaginary parts of the index of refraction for the medium composed of single-element materials or compounds in the x-ray range of the spectrum. These complex index of refraction values are then plugged into a Lorenz-Mie theory to calculate the absorption efficiency of various size gold nanoparticles for photon energies in the 1-100keV range. Since the output from most medical diagnostic x-ray devices follows a wide and filtered spectrum of photon energies, we introduce and compute the effective intensity-absorption-efficiency values for gold nanoparticles of radii varying from 5 to 50nm, where we use the TASMIP model to integrate over all spectral energies generated by typical tungsten anode x-ray tubes with kilovolt potentials ranging from 50 to 150kVp.