Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-induced Protein Research Articles

The NF-κB Negative Regulator TNFAIP3 (A20) is Commonly Inactivated by Somatic Mutations and Genomic Deletions in Marginal Zone B-Cell Lymphomas

Marginal zone lymphoma (MZL) is a B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL) derived from marginal-zone B-cells. The current WHO classification recognizes three types of MZLs, which comprise extranodal MZL (EMZL), nodal MZL (NMZL), and splenic MZL (SMZL). Four recurrent and mutually exclusive chromosomal translocations: t(11;18)(q21;q21), t(1;14)(p22;q32), t(14;18)(q32;q21), and t(3;14)(p14.1;q32) have been described in EMZLs, but not in NMZLs or SMZLs, with frequencies ranging from 0–40% depending on differing anatomic sites and geographic regions. At least three of these translocations, t(11;18) API2/MALT1, t(1;14) IgH/BCL10, and t(14;18) IgH/MALT, result in constitutive activation of nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), a transcription factor complex regulating multiple cellular processes including cell growth and survival. Approximately 25% of MZL however, lack any recognizable recurrent genetic alteration. Recently, biallelic deletions of the chromosomal region 6q23.3-q24.1 containing the tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 3 (TNFAIP3, A20), which is a negative regulator of NF-kB, were detected in ocular adnexal MZLs, suggesting a role for A20 as a tumor suppressor in this disease entity. Here, we investigated a panel of 32 cases representing all three types of MZLs by PCR amplification and sequencing of the A20 coding exons. FISH was also performed using locus specific probes for A20 and Blimp1. Five 1–2 bp deletions and a single bp insertion, all leading to premature stop codons, were identified in 5/20 (25%) non-splenic MZLs and 1/12 (8.3%) SMZLs. The somatic nature of the mutations was confirmed by analyzing matched normal DNA in 4 cases. All A20 mutations were predictive of severely truncated polypeptides lacking functionally relevant domains. Genetic loss of A20 was detected by FISH in 4/20 (20%) non-splenic MZLs, including 1 with biallelic loss, but not in SMZLs. Two of the four A20 deletions seen by FISH were also observed by array-CGH. Deletions encompassing Blimp1 were not detected in cases with A20 deletions. No evidence for epigenetic silencing of A20 via promoter methylation of CpG islands was found in 10 MZLs analyzed. Thus, biallelic inactivation of A20, either via deletion of both alleles or frameshift mutations of one allele and loss of the second allele was identified in 3/20 (15%) non-splenic MZLs, while an additional 4/20 (20%) non-splenic MZLs displayed monoallelic A20 inactivation by mutations (N=3) or deletion (N=1). When we determined the relationship between A20 inactivation and trisomy 18 or the translocations associated with constitutive activation of NF-kB, A20 inactivation appeared mutually exclusive with these cytogenetic aberrations, with the exception of one case that had trisomy 18. In summary, our results indicate that A20 is mono- or biallelically inactivated in approximately one third of MZLs, arising in both nodal (3/9, 33.3%) and extranodal sites (4/11, 36.4%), and in a minority of SMZLs (1/12, 8.3%). Evidence of a classic two-hit mechanism was observed in 3/20 (15%) non-splenic MZL. In addition, detection of MZLs with monoallelic inactivation suggests a haploinsufficient role of A20 as a tumor suppressor. Thus, A20 inactivation may represent a common mechanism for constitutive activation of the NF-kB pathway, which, in turn, may contribute to lymphomagenesis by stimulating cell proliferation and survival. The identification of genetic lesions in MZLs that deregulate NF-kB activity offers the possibility of targeted therapeutic intervention.

Multiple polymorphisms in the TNFAIP3 region are independently associated with systemic lupus erythematosus.

The TNFAIP3 (tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 3) gene encodes a ubiquitin editing enzyme, A20, that restricts NF-kappaB-dependent signaling and prevents inflammation. We show that three independent SNPs in the TNFAIP3 region (rs13192841, rs2230926 and rs6922466) are associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) among individuals of European ancestry. These findings provide critical links between A20 and the etiology of SLE.

Synthesis of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-Induced Protein 6 in Porcine Preovulatory Follicles: A Study with A38 Antibody1

We have previously shown that the heavy chains (HCs) of inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor (IalphaI) become covalently linked to hyaluronan (HA) during in vivo and in vitro expansion of porcine oocyte-cumulus cell complexes (OCCs). We have now studied by immunoblotting the synthesis of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6 (TNFAIP6), which is essential for catalyzing this reaction in expanding mouse OCCs. Expanding OCCs were collected from preovulatory follicles of naturally cycling pigs and also after in vitro culture (24 or 42 h) in medium supplemented with FSH and pig serum. After isolation, OCCs were treated with Streptomyces hyaluronidase or Chondroitinase ABC. Matrix, cell pellet, and total extracts were analyzed by Western blotting. A band of about 35 kDa and a doublet of about 120 kDa, corresponding to the molecular weight of the native and HC-linked forms of TNFAIP6, respectively, were detected by a rabbit anti-human TNFAIP6 polyclonal antibody in matrix extracts of expanded cumuli. Moreover, we found by using a cell-free assay that porcine follicular fluid collected from follicles at 24 h after hCG stimulation contains HC-HA coupling activity. This activity was abolished by the rat anti-human monoclonal antibody A38, which has an epitope within the Link module domain of TNFAIP6. These experiments suggest that free TNFAIP6 protein was present in follicular fluid aspirated from porcine follicles 24 h after hCG stimulation. In contrast to mouse, we show that the A38 monoclonal antibody does not affect in vitro cumulus expansion of porcine OCCs.

DNA Micro-Array Gene Expression Profiling of Angiogenesis in Collagen Gel Culture

We examined angiogenesis-related gene expression profiles using collagen gel culture and a DNA chip. After isolation of total RNA from cultures before and after capillary tube formation, a mouse whole-genome array study was performed. Seventy-three out of over 35,000 transcripts were expressed after capillary tube formation. The majority of genes did not show any significant differences between before and after capillary tube formation. However, there were 7 upregulated genes; tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein (Tnfαip) 2, vascular endothelial growth factor b (Vegfb), corticotropin releasing hormone receptor (Crhr) 2, vascular endothelial growth factor C (Vegfc), fi broblast growth factor (Fgf) 6, protein O-fucosyltransferase (Pofut) 1, hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha subunit (Hif-1a). Eleven down-regulated genes were identified; ras homolog gene family member B (RhoB), Fgf-2, Thrombospondin (Thbs) 1, Angiogenin (Ang) 3, guanine nucleotide binding protein alpha (Gna) 13, tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 12a (Tnfrsf12a), plasminogen (Plg), Elk3, upstream binding protein (Ubp) 1, integrin alpha V (Itgav), mitogen activated protein kinase (Mapk) 14. These up- and down-regulated genes identified in this study offer the strategies which improve the myocardial substrate during and following a myocardial infarction, such as the regrowth of functional blood vessels to the ischemic myocardium.

Interleukin-1β is a positive regulator of TIARP/STAMP2 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced adipose-related protein (TIARP)/six-transmembrane protein of prostate 2 (STAMP2) has been characterized as an adipocyte-expressed protein which might play a crucial role in metabolic homeostasis and inflammatory pathways. In the current study, the impact of insulin resistance-inducing and proinflammatory interleukin (IL)-1β on TIARP/STAMP2 gene expression was determined by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Interestingly, TIARP/STAMP2 mRNA synthesis was significantly stimulated by IL-1β in a dose-dependent fashion with 2.6-fold induction seen at IL-1β concentrations as low as 0.02ng/ml and maximal 9.2-fold upregulation found at 20ng/ml effector. Furthermore, induction of TIARP/STAMP2 mRNA by IL-1β was time-dependent with maximal 18.6-fold upregulation detectable after 8h of IL-1β treatment. Signaling studies suggested that janus kinase 2, nuclear factor κ B, and p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase are involved in IL-1β-induced TIARP/STAMP2 mRNA expression. Taken together, these results show that TIARP/STAMP2 is highly upregulated in fat cells by IL-1β and might participate in proinflammatory and insulin resistance-inducing effects of this cytokine.

Rheumatoid arthritis association at 6q23.

The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium (WTCCC) identified nine single SNPs putatively associated with rheumatoid arthritis at P = 1 x 10(-5) - 5 x 10(-7) in a genome-wide association screen. One, rs6920220, was unequivocally replicated (trend P = 1.1 x 10(-8)) in a validation study, as described here. This SNP maps to 6q23, between the genes oligodendrocyte lineage transcription factor 3 (OLIG3) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced protein 3 (TNFAIP3).

Optineurin Negatively Regulates TNFα- Induced NF-κB Activation by Competing with NEMO for Ubiquitinated RIP

NF-kappaB essential modulator (NEMO), the regulatory subunit of the IkappaB kinase (IKK) that activates NF-kappaB, is essential for NF-kappaB activation. NEMO was recently found to contain a region that preferentially binds Lys (K)63-linked but not K48-linked polyubiquitin (polyUb) chains, and the ability of NEMO to bind to K63-linked polyUb RIP (receptor-interacting protein) is necessary for efficient tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha)-induced NF-kappaB activation. Optineurin is a homolog of NEMO, and mutations in the optineurin gene are found in a subset of patients with glaucoma, a neurodegenerative disease involving the loss of retinal ganglion cells. Although optineurin shares considerable homology with NEMO, in resting cells, it is not present in the high-molecular-weight complex containing IKKalpha and IKKbeta, and optineurin cannot substitute for NEMO in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NF-kappaB activation. On the other hand, the overexpression of optineurin blocks the protective effect of E3-14.7K on cell death caused by the overexpression of TNFalpha receptor 1 (TNFR1). Here we show that optineurin has a K63-linked polyUb-binding region similar to that of NEMO, and like NEMO, it bound K63- but not K48-linked polyUb. Optineurin competitively antagonized NEMO's binding to polyUb RIP, and its overexpression inhibited TNFalpha-induced NF-kappaB activation. This competition occurs at physiologic protein levels because microRNA silencing of optineurin resulted in markedly enhanced TNFalpha-induced NF-kappaB activity. These results reveal a physiologic role for optineurin in dampening TNFalpha signaling, and this role might provide an explanation for its association with glaucoma.

Identification of novel dioxin-responsive genes by representational difference analysis

Representational difference analysis (RDA) was employed on dioxin-stimulated Hepa-1 mouse hepatoma cells (human breast cancer) MCF-7 cells, mouse liver, and mouse thymocytes in order to identify novel responder genes to dioxin. In addition to several clones representing known dioxin-inducible genes, several clones were isolated that represented genes that were previously not known to be inducible by dioxin, including B94 (also known as tumour necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 2 (Tnfaip2), Seven in absentia homologue 2 (Siah2), the mouse homologue of Bob/Gpr15, and S-adenosyl-homocysteine hydrolase (Sahh, Ahcy). Induction of these genes by dioxin in Hepa-1 cells was rapid. Furthermore, induction occurred in the presence of the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide, indicating that in each case induction is a primary response.

Oocyte-Secreted Factor Activation of SMAD 2/3 Signaling Enables Initiation of Mouse Cumulus Cell Expansion1

Expansion of the mouse cumulus-oocyte complex (COC) is dependent on oocyte-secreted paracrine factors. Transforming growth factor beta (TGFB) superfamily molecules are prime candidates for the cumulus expansion-enabling factors (CEEFs), and we have recently determined that growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9) alone is not the CEEF. The aim of this study was to examine oocyte paracrine factors and their signaling pathways that regulate mouse cumulus expansion. Using RT-PCR, oocytes were found to express the two activin subunits, Inhba and Inhbb, and activin A and activin B both enabled FSH-induced cumulus expansion of oocytectomized (OOX) complexes. Follistatin, an activin-binding protein, neutralized activin-induced expansion but had no effect on oocyte-induced expansion. The type I receptors for GDF9 and activin are activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5) and ALK4, respectively, both of which activate the same SMAD 2/3 signaling pathway. We examined the requirement for this signaling system using an ALK 4/5/7 inhibitor, SB-431542. SB-431542 completely ablated FSH-stimulated GDF9-, activin A-, activin B-, and oocyte-induced cumulus expansion. Moreover, SB-431542 also antagonized epidermal growth factor-stimulated, oocyte-induced cumulus expansion. Using real-time RT-PCR, SB-431542 also attenuated GDF9-, activin A-, and oocyte-induced OOX expression of hyaluronan synthase 2, tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6, prostaglandin synthase 2, and pentraxin 3. This study provides evidence that the CEEF is composed of TGFB superfamily molecules that signal through SMAD 2/3 to enable the initiation of mouse cumulus expansion.

Decidual Stromal Cell Response to Paracrine Signals from the Trophoblast: Amplification of Immune and Angiogenic Modulators1

During the invasive phase of implantation, trophoblasts and maternal decidual stromal cells secrete products that regulate trophoblast differentiation and migration into the maternal endometrium. Paracrine interactions between the extravillous trophoblast and the maternal decidua are important for successful embryonic implantation, including establishing the placental vasculature, anchoring the placenta to the uterine wall, and promoting the immunoacceptance of the fetal allograph. To our knowledge, global crosstalk between the trophoblast and the decidua has not been elucidated to date, and the present study used a functional genomics approach to investigate these paracrine interactions. Human endometrial stromal cells were decidualized with progesterone and further treated with conditioned media from human trophoblasts (TCM) or, as a control, with control conditioned media (CCM) from nondecidualized stromal cells for 0, 3, and 12 h. Total RNA was isolated and processed for analysis on whole-genome, high-density oligonucleotide arrays containing 54,600 genes. We found that 1374 genes were significantly upregulated and that 3443 genes were significantly downregulated after 12 h of coincubation of stromal cells with TCM, compared to CCM. Among the most upregulated genes were the chemokines CXCL1 (GRO1) and IL8,CXCR4, and other genes involved in the immune response (CCL8 [SCYA8], pentraxin 3 (PTX3), IL6, and interferon-regulated and -related genes) as well as TNFAIP6 (tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6) and metalloproteinases (MMP1, MMP10, and MMP14). Among the downregulated genes were growth factors, e.g., IGF1, FGF1, TGFB1, and angiopoietin-1, and genes involved in Wnt signaling (WNT4 and FZD). Real-time RT-PCR and ELISAs, as well as immunohistochemical analysis of human placental bed specimens, confirmed these data for representative genes of both up- and downregulated groups. The data demonstrate a significant induction of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, as well as angiogenic/static factors in decidualized endometrial stromal cells in response to trophoblast-secreted products. The data suggest that the trophoblast acts to alter the local immune environment of the decidua to facilitate the process of implantation and ensure an enriched cytokine/chemokine environment while limiting the mitotic activity of the stromal cells during the invasive phase of implantation.

Functional variants within the secreted frizzled-related protein 3 gene are associated with hip osteoarthritis in females.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of disability in Western society with multiple risk factors, including a complex genetic pattern. Identifying loci involved in the heredity of OA might lead to insights into the molecular pathogenesis of this common disorder. A previous genome scan mapped a primary hip OA susceptibility locus to chromosome 2q with a maximum multipoint logarithm of odds score of 1.6 in 378 affected sibling pair families. Here, microsatellite targeting of eight candidate genes in this region from 2q23-2q32 demonstrated significant associations with the tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6 gene in all probands and the integrin alpha 6 and frizzled motif associated with bone development (FRZB) genes in female probands. However, genotyping showed lack of association for a nonsynonymous single-nucleotide polymorphism in tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6, whereas a single-nucleotide polymorphism in FRZB resulting in an Arg324Gly substitution at the carboxyl terminus was associated with hip OA in the female probands (P = 0.04). This association was confirmed in an independent cohort of female hip cases (n = 338; P = 0.04). In addition, a haplotype coding for substitutions of two highly conserved arginine residues (Arg200Trp and Arg324Gly) in FRZB was a strong risk factor for primary hip OA, with an odds ratio of 4.1 (P = 0.004). FRZB encodes secreted frizzled-related protein 3, which is a soluble antagonist of wingless (wnt) signaling. Variant secreted frizzled-related protein 3 with the Arg324Gly substitution had diminished ability to antagonize wnt signaling in vitro. Hence, functional polymorphisms within FRZB confer susceptibility for hip OA in females and implicate the wnt signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of this disease.

Microarray analysis identified differentially expressed genes in keratocytes from keratoconus patients

Purpose. To identify differentially expressed genes in human keratoconus keratocyte by cDNA microarray. Methods. Normal and keratoconic cornea were cultured for keratocytes. RNA was extracted. cDNA probe labeled with fluorescence dye was made from Poly A+ RNA, hybridized with microarray slide, containing 164 human apoptosis genes. Signal intensity was measured. Expression ratio between keratoconus and normal was determined using ImaGene Ver.3.0. Identified genes were further evaluated by RT-PCR and real-time PCR. Results. Five over-expressed and four under-expressed genes were identified. Of these, differential expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6 (TNFAIP6), human insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5 (IGFBP5), and IGFBP3 were verified and confirmed by RT-PCR. Real-time PCR showed TNFAIP6 increased by 3.3 folds, while IGFBP5, IGFBP3 decreased by 14 and 11 folds respectively. Conclusions. The identified genes could be important and deserve further investigation. Significant differential expression of TNFAIP6, IGFBP5, and IGFBP3 may indicate an important role of these genes in the mechanism underlying stromal thinning.

GH is a positive regulator of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced adipose related protein in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha-induced adipose-related protein (TIARP) has recently been cloned as a TNFalpha-stimulated protein expressed in adipocytes. Its expression is differentiation-dependent and potentially involved in mediating TNFalpha-induced insulin resistance. To further characterize regulation of TIARP gene expression, 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with key hormones modulating insulin sensitivity and influencing adipocyte metabolism, and TIARP gene expression was determined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Interestingly, TIARP mRNA expression was stimulated almost 9-fold after 500 ng/ml GH were added for 16 h whereas addition of 10 microM isoproterenol, 100 nM insulin and 100 nM dexamethasone for 16 h significantly decreased TIARP gene expression to between 35 and 50% of control levels. In contrast, angiotensin 2 (10 microM) and triiodothyronine (1 microM) did not have any effect. The stimulatory effect of GH was time- and dose-dependent with stimulation occurring as early as 1 h after effector addition and at concentrations as low as 5 ng/ml GH. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of Janus kinase 2 and p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase reversed the stimulatory effect of GH, suggesting that both signaling molecules are involved in activation of TIARP gene expression by GH. Furthermore, an increase of TIARP mRNA could be completely reversed to control levels by withdrawal of GH for 24 h. Taken together, these results show that TIARP is not only responsive to TNFalpha but also to important other hormones influencing glucose homeostasis and adipocyte metabolism. Thus, this factor may play an integrative role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and its link to obesity.

Thioredoxin from Brugia malayi: defining a 16-kilodalton class of thioredoxins from nematodes.

Thioredoxins are a family of small redox proteins that undergo NADPH-dependent reduction by thioredoxin reductase. This results in a supply of reducing equivalents that cells use in a wide variety of biological reactions, which include maintaining reduced forms of the enzymes important for protection against damage from high-energy oxygen radicals, the regulation of transcription factor activity, and the inhibition of apoptosis. Here we report on a new member of the thioredoxin family of proteins from the filarial nematode Brugia malayi, Bm-TRX-1, which defines a new subclass of 16-kDa thioredoxins that occur widely in nematodes, including Caenorhabditis elegans. In addition to being larger than the thioredoxins found in mammalian and bacterial species, the putative active site sequence of Bm-TRX-1, WCPPC, does not conform to the highly conserved WCGPC reported for thioredoxins from mammals to bacteria. Interestingly, an allelic form of Bm-TRX-1 was identified with an active site sequence WCPQC, which appears to be unique to the thioredoxins from filarial species. Bm-TRX-1 was between 98% and 35% identical to thioredoxins from other nematodes and approximately 20% identical to the thioredoxins from mammals and Escherichia coli. Bm-TRX-1 was constitutively transcribed throughout the B. malayi life cycle, and Bm-TRX protein was detectable in somatic extracts and excretory-secretory products from adults and microfilariae. Recombinant Bm-TRX-1 had thiodisulfide reductase activity, as measured by the reduction of insulin, and protected DNA from the nicking activity of oxygen radicals. Overexpression of Bm-TRX-1 in a human monocyte cell line negatively regulated tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity, suggesting a possible role of the 16-kDa Bm-TRX-1 in immunomodulation.

Changes in global gene and protein expression during early mouse liver carcinogenesis induced by non-genotoxic model carcinogens oxazepam and Wyeth-14,643.

We hypothesized that the mouse liver tumor response to non-genotoxic carcinogens would involve some common early gene and protein expression changes that could ultimately be used to predict chemical hepatocarcinogenesis. In order to identify a panel of genes to test, we analyzed global differences in gene and protein expression in livers from B6C3F1 mice following dietary treatment with two rodent carcinogens, the benzodiazepine anti-anxiety drug oxazepam (2500 p.p.m.) and the hypolipidemic agent Wyeth (Wy)-14,643 (500 p.p.m.) compared with livers from untreated mice. Male mice were exposed for 2 weeks and 1, 3 or 6 months to oxazepam or Wy-14,643 in an age-matched study design. By histopathological evaluation, no liver preneoplastic foci or tumors were detected at 6 months in treated or control groups. By cDNA microarray analysis [NIEHS Mouse Chip (8700 genes); n = 3 individual livers/group, four hybridizations/sample], expression of 36 genes or 220 genes were changed relative to control livers following 6 months of oxazepam or Wy-14,643 treatment, respectively. To obtain a more comprehensive picture of gene/protein expression changes, we also conducted a proteomics study by 2D-gel electrophoresis followed by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry on cytoplasmic, nuclear, and microsomal subcellular fractions of the same liver samples utilized for the cDNA microarray analysis. Real-time PCR, western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry were utilized for validation and to expand the results to other time points. Cyp2b20, growth arrest- and damage-inducible gene beta (Gadd45beta), tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 2 and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 (Igfbp5) genes and proteins were upregulated by oxazepam, and Cyp2b20, Cyclin D1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, Igfbp5, Gadd45beta and cell death-inducing DNA fragmentation factor alpha subunit-like effector A exhibited higher expression after Wy-14,643 treatment. Most of these genes/proteins were also deregulated at 2 weeks. There appeared to be more distinct than common changes in the expression of carcinogenesis-related genes/proteins between the two compounds, suggesting that the major carcinogenic pathways are different for these compounds and may be distinct for different chemical classes.

Cartilage-specific constitutive expression of TSG-6 protein (product of tumor necrosis factor alpha-stimulated gene 6) provides a chondroprotective, but not antiinflammatory, effect in antigen-induced arthritis.

To study the chondroprotective effect of constitutively expressed TSG-6 protein (tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6; Tnfip6) in cartilage, using antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) in mice. Transgenic mice constitutively expressing TSG-6 protein in cartilage were generated. Cartilage-specific constitutive expression of TSG-6 protein was confirmed by in situ hybridization, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. Control and transgenic mice were immunized with methylated bovine serum albumin (mBSA), and arthritis was induced by the intraarticular injection of mBSA. Mice were monitored up to day 35 after the challenge, and knee joint sections were examined for loss of cartilage proteoglycan (aggrecan) using Safranin O staining and antibodies to neoepitopes generated by various metalloproteinases (MPs). The loss of aggrecan in Safranin O-stained sections was quantified by morphometric methods. Tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice constitutively expressed tsg6/tnfip6 messenger RNA and corresponding TSG-6 protein in cartilage from embryonic life through adulthood, without any phenotypic abnormalities. These mice were used for AIA studies. Intraarticular injection of mBSA uniformly induced severe inflammation both in control (wild-type and an irrelevant transgenic line) mice and in tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice. In contrast to the mBSA-injected knee joints of control animals that were heavily damaged from day 5, the cartilage of transgenic mice that constitutively expressed TSG-6 protein remained intact for at least 1 week, and this was followed by a relatively reduced loss of aggrecan. Concomitant with the loss of aggrecan, MP-generated neoepitopes accumulated in unprotected joints. By day 35, the proteoglycan content returned to nearly normal levels in tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice, whereas it remained low in MP-damaged knee cartilage of control mice. TSG-6 protein is known to form a complex with inter-alpha-inhibitor (IalphaI), a potent serine protease inhibitor, which may be immobilized via the hyaluronan (HA)-binding domain of TSG-6 protein in the HA-rich extracellular matrix of cartilage. Thus, the local accumulation of TSG-6 protein and TSG-6 protein-bound IalphaI in tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice may inhibit serine proteases and subsequent activation of MPs. It is suggested that this mechanism might protect cartilage from extensive degradation even in the presence of acute inflammation.

Interaction of an adenovirus E3 14.7-kilodalton protein with a novel tumor necrosis factor alpha-inducible cellular protein containing leucine zipper domains.

Early region 3 (E3) of group C human adenoviruses (Ad) encodes several inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) cytolysis, including an E3 14.7-kDa protein (E3-14.7K) and a heterodimer containing two polypeptides of 10.4 and 14.5 kDa. To understand the mechanism by which the viral proteins inhibit TNF-alpha functions, the E3-14.7K protein was used to screen a HeLa cell cDNA library to search for interacting proteins in the yeast two-hybrid system. A novel protein containing multiple leucine zipper domains without any significant homology with any known protein was identified and has been named FIP-2 (for 14.7K-interacting protein). FIP-2 interacted with E3-14.7K both in vitro and in vivo. It colocalized with Ad E3-14.7K in the cytoplasm, especially near the nuclear membrane, and caused redistribution of the viral protein. FIP-2 by itself does not cause cell death; however, it can reverse the protective effect of E3-14.7K on cell killing induced by overexpression of the intracellular domain of the 55-kDa TNF receptor or by RIP, a death protein involved in the TNF-alpha and Fas apoptosis pathways. Deletion analysis indicates that the reversal effect of FIP-2 depends on its interaction with E3-14.7K. Three major mRNA forms of FIP-2 have been detected in multiple human tissues, and expression of the transcripts was induced by TNF-alpha treatment in a time-dependent manner in two different cell lines. FIP-2 has consensus sequences for several potential posttranslational modifications. These data suggest that FIP-2 is one of the cellular targets for Ad E3-14.7K and that its mechanism of affecting cell death involves the TNF receptor, RIP, or a downstream molecule affected by either of these two molecules.

Transcriptional activation of the tumor necrosis factor alpha-inducible zinc finger protein, A20, is mediated by kappa B elements.

A20 was first identified as a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) primary response transcript encoding a 790-amino acid protein with a unique zinc finger motif. Recently, A20 was shown to protect cells from TNF-induced cytotoxicity in a variety of cell lines. Nuclear run-on studies previously established that TNF activates A20 at the transcriptional level. To further characterize the mechanism by which TNF activates the A20 gene, we have cloned the A20 5'-flanking sequences and identified TNF-responsive elements within the promoter. The transcription initiation site was mapped by both primer extension and S1 nuclease protection experiments to a position 4.2 kilobases (kb) upstream of the initiator methionine; the first and second exon were separated by a 3.9-kb intron. Sequences upstream of the transcription start site were 76% GC-rich and contained six Sp1 binding sites and a TATA-like sequence at -29 but lacked a consensus CCAAT site. Transfection of Jurkat T-cells with an array of A20 promoter CAT constructs showed that two kappa B elements residing at -54 and -66 were required for induction by TNF. Supporting this notion, DNA electrophoretic mobility shift assays using nuclear extracts from unstimulated and TNF-stimulated Jurkat cells demonstrated kappa B-specific binding of a TNF-activated factor to an end-labeled probe containing the two A20 kappa B sequences. Finally, evidence obtained from cotransfection experiments showed that A20 negatively regulated its own expression.

Role of Platelet-activating Factor in Mediating Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-induced Pulmonary Vasoconstriction and Plasma-Lymph Protein Transport

We assessed the role of platelet-activating factor (PAF) in mediating the pulmonary hemodynamic and lymph flow responses to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha). The effects of the PAF receptor antagonist WEB 2086 on TNF alpha-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction and increased pulmonary transvascular plasma-lymph protein transport were examined. Control (n = 7) and WEB-2086-pretreated (n = 7) sheep prepared with chronic lung lymph fistulas were challenged with recombinant human TNF alpha (12 micrograms/kg over 0.5 h). Ex vivo challenge of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) with 10(-8) M PAF resulted in aggregation of platelets from control TNF-challenged sheep, but not of platelets from WEB-treated sheep similarly challenged with TNF. The control TNF-alpha-challenged sheep developed hemoconcentration, leukopenia, and neutropenia. TNF alpha resulted in increases in pulmonary arterial pressure (Ppa) and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) within 15 min, and the values were sustained for the 5-h experiment duration. Pulmonary lymph flow (Qlym) and pulmonary transvascular protein clearance rate (Qlym x lymph-to-plasma protein concentration) were increased within 30 min and remained elevated for 5 h. The WEB-2086-treated sheep developed similar leukopenia and neutropenia after TNF alpha challenge, but the initial increases in Ppa and PVR were significantly reduced (p less than 0.05). However, WEB 2086 did not prevent the threefold increases in Qlym and transvascular protein clearance induced with TNF alpha.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Maternal nutrition and the sex ratio at birth: River, J. P. & M. A. Crawford: Nature, [formula omitted]: 297, 1974. Nuffield Institute of Comparative Medicine, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, England

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of inhibiting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway on meiosis blockage and resumption, mRNA expression of genes involved in oocyte maturation and cumulus expansion, and embryo development. Bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) were cultured for 15 h in the presence of the EGFR inhibitor (AG1478) and follicular hemisections (FHS). Most of the oocytes (89.3%) remained at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage when cultured in the presence of FHS and 5 μM AG1478. The inhibitory effect was reversible as most oocytes (83.8%) completed meiosis after additional 20 h maturation. Embryo development to the blastocyst stage was similar (P > 0.05) between FHS and 5 μM AG1478 treated (39.3%) and control (41.1%) groups. In cumulus cells, mRNA abundance of early growth response protein 1 (EGR1), tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 6 (TNFAIP6) and hyaluronan synthase 2 (HAS2) genes, and phosphorylated extracellular regulated kinase (p-ERK1/2) protein were lower in COCs treated with AG1478 plus FHS compared with FHS alone (P < 0.05). In granulosa cells of FHS, AG1478 treatment reduced transcript levels of PGR and ADAMTS1 (P < 0.05). The inhibitory effect of AG1478 on meiotic progression was not reverted by treatment with angiotensin II (ANG II) or prostaglandins (PGF2α or PGE2). This study demonstrates that inhibition of EGFR in the presence of FHS is a reliable approach to promote reversible arrest of bovine oocytes at the GV stage.