Tubular Flowers Research Articles

TEMPORAL DIOECISM, MELITTOPHILY AND ANEMOCHORY OF Wendlandia glabrata (RUBIACEAE)

Wendlandia glabrata is a massive bloomer during February–March. Floral characteristics such as diurnal anthesis, white coloured, odorless, tubular flowers with deep seated sucrose-rich nectar conform to psychophily. Nectar is a source of essential and non-essential amino acids for butterflies, inconsistent foragers due to nectar traces in open flowers. This suggests a breakdown of psychophilous pollination. Honey bees consistently collect only pollen. Flies are also inconsistent nectar foragers. Therefore, W. glabrata with psychophilous pollination syndrome is actually melittophilous, and the flowers exhibit Secondary Pollen Presentation (SPP). The flowers are morphologically hermaphroditic but functionally temporally dioecious which promotes outcrossing. Natural fruit and seed set rates are attributed to pollen robbery by honey bees. Anemochory is effective to dispersal of seeds. In situ seedling establishment rate is low due to habit, seasonal herbaceous vegetation, and space limitation. Therefore, we recommend that seedlings be raised in nurseries and transplanted to rebuild populations of W. glabrata.

Plant Pollinator Networks along a Gradient of Urbanisation

BackgroundHabitat loss is one of the principal causes of the current pollinator decline. With agricultural intensification, increasing urbanisation is among the main drivers of habitat loss. Consequently studies focusing on pollinator community structure along urbanisation gradients have increased in recent years. However, few studies have investigated how urbanisation affects plant-pollinator interaction networks. Here we assessed modifications of plant-pollinator interactions along an urbanisation gradient based on the study of their morphological relationships.Methodology/Principal FindingsAlong an urbanisation gradient comprising four types of landscape contexts (semi-natural, agricultural, suburban, urban), we set up experimental plant communities containing two plant functional groups differing in their morphological traits (“open flowers” and “tubular flowers”). Insect visitations on these communities were recorded to build plant-pollinator networks. A total of 17 857 interactions were recorded between experimental plant communities and flower-visitors. The number of interactions performed by flower-visitors was significantly lower in urban landscape context than in semi-natural and agricultural ones. In particular, insects such as Syrphidae and solitary bees that mostly visited the open flower functional group were significantly impacted by urbanisation, which was not the case for bumblebees. Urbanisation also impacted the generalism of flower-visitors and we detected higher interaction evenness in urban landscape context than in agricultural and suburban ones. Finally, in urban context, these modifications lowered the potential reproductive success of the open flowers functional group.Conclusions/SignificanceOur findings show that open flower plant species and their specific flower-visitors are especially sensitive to increasing urbanisation. These results provide new clues to improve conservation measures within urbanised areas in favour of specialist flower-visitors. To complete this functional approach, studies using networks resolved to the species level along urbanised gradients would be required.

A pollinators' eye view of a shelter mimicry system

'Human-red' flowers are traditionally considered to be rather unpopular with bees, yet some allogamous species in the section Oncocyclus (genus Iris, Iridaceae) have evolved specialized interactions with their pollinators, a narrow taxonomic range of male solitary bees. The dark-red, tubular flowers of these irises are nectarless but provide protective shelters (i.e. a non-nutritive form of reward) primarily to male solitary bees (Apidae, Eucerini) that pollinate the flowers while looking for a shelter. An earlier study on orchids suggested that species pollinated predominantly by male solitary bees produce significantly larger amounts and larger numbers of different n-alkenes (unsaturated cuticular hydrocarbons). Whether or not this also applies to the Oncocyclus irises and whether pollinators are attracted by specific colours or scents of these flowers is unknown. Using Iris atropurpurea, recording of pollinator preferences for shelters with different spatial parameters was combined with analyses of floral colours (by spectrophotometry) and scents (by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) to test the hypotheses that (a) pollinators significantly prefer floral tunnels facing the rising sun (floral heat-reward hypothesis), and that (b) flowers pollinated predominantly by male solitary bees produce significantly larger amounts and larger numbers of unsaturated cuticular hydrocarbons (n-alkenes) in their floral scent (preadaptation to sexual-deception hypothesis). Male bees do not significantly prefer shelters facing the rising sun or with the presence of high absolute/relative amounts and numbers of n-alkenes in the floral scent. The results suggest that the flowers of I. atropurpurea probably evolved by pollinator-mediated selection acting primarily on floral colours to mimic large achromatic ('bee-black') protective shelters used preferentially by male solitary bees, and that pollinator visits are presumably not the result of an odour-based sexual stimulation or motivated by an increased morning floral heat reward in tunnels facing the rising sun.

The assembly of plants used as nectar sources by hummingbirds in a Cerrado area of Central Brazil

Studies on hummingbird–plant interactions commonly use a pollination approach emphasizing mutualistic relationships. But floral resources are often used opportunistically by these birds. Plant–pollinator assemblies and pollination sustainability will depend both on the well-adapted plants and other potential floral resources. The Cerrado, Neotropical savannas of Central Brazil, has ca. 7.5 % of its flora supposedly adapted to hummingbird pollination. But detailed information about flowers effectively used by hummingbirds at community level is still lacking. Hence, we recorded all plant species visited by hummingbirds, to determine how these nectariferous flowers were distributed in time and space in different plant formations of a Cerrado area, and also the hummingbird species that visit them. The study was conducted between March 2007 and December 2008 in the Panga Ecological Station. Data regarding flowering phenology, floral morphology and visitation were collected monthly. Forty-six nectariferous species from 39 genera and 17 families were recorded, most with annual flowering dynamics and tubular flowers. But only 21 species had a combination of traits fitting classic ornithophilous syndrome. For the remaining species hummingbird visitation was ascertained from observations at the study site or other sites in the region. Eight hummingbird species occurred in the area and were recorded visiting directly 36 plant species. The study area presented a relatively low number of ornithophilous plants, but a great habitat diversity and many non-ornithophilous plants that hummingbirds used as nectar sources. Therefore, in the studied Cerrado, the diversity of environments and nectariferous plants favour the maintenance of resident and migrant hummingbirds.

Anatomical and morphological diagnostics of Tanacetum vulgare L. flowers

The morphological, histological and microscopical investigations on tansy Tanacetum vulgare L. flowers were carried out. For the first time were studied the microscopic and histological structures of the inflorescence (the basket) of T. vulgare, its flowers and diagnostic signs are revealed. There were observed the presence of the layer of sclerenchyma in the mesophyll of the inflorescence spathe. For the first time were described the morphological and anatomical characteristics of the structure of the fertile part of the tubular flower, flower stalk and leaflets, which compose corymbiform inflorescence from the baskets.

Comparison of botanical characteristics of cultivated Chrysanthemum morifolium cv.'Hangju' of different origins

To compare botanical characteristics of cultivated Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. 'Hangju' of different origins in order to provide the basis for introduction and cultivation of Ch. morifolium cv. 'Hangju'. The characteristics of plants, leaves and capitulum of Ch. morifolium cv. 'Hangju' were measured, and the obtained data were analyzed and compared. The range of plant height was 60.87-99.47 cm, number of branches 2.76-5.20, leave length 4.90-8.40 cm, leave width 3.25-5.38 cm, aspect ratio of leave 1.35-1.83, number of leave split 1.92-3.08. Numbers of capitulum were 21.92-53.12, diameter of capitulum 3.41-5.48 cm, lays of ray florets 3.28-7.16, number of ray florets 55.32-114.60, ray florets length 1.58-2.37 cm, ray florets width 0.50-0.69 cm, aspect ratio of ray florets 2.90-3.99, diameter of tubular flower 1.10-1.58 cm. The botanical characteristics of cultivated Ch. morifolium cv. 'Hangju' were distinguished from different origins. With the cultivation environment change, the botanical characteristics of the cultivars are changed.

Quantity versus quality: identifying the most effective pollinators of the hummingbird-pollinated Vriesea rodigasiana (Bromeliaceae)

Although hummingbirds are considered the major bromeliad pollinators, different species may contribute differently to pollination. This study analyses the importance of different hummingbirds to pollination of Vriesea rodigasiana (Bromeliaceae), based on visitation frequency (a quantity component) and germinated pollen load per visit (a quality component) in the Atlantic rainforest of southeastern Brazil. This bromeliad flowers for 3–4 months with a peak in March. Its yellow, tubular flowers last about 13 h and demonstrate approach herkogamy. During flowering peak, Thalurania glaucopis visited more flowers than Ramphodon naevius, whereas by the end of the flowering season the latter visited more. Differences in hummingbird bill length resulted in different pollen placement and stigma contact. The short-billed T. glaucopis received pollen on the top of its head, depositing it on the center of the stigma, while the long-billed R. naevius received it on the proximal part of its bill, depositing it on the lower lobe of the stigma. Flowers visited by T. glaucopis had six times more pollen tubes than those visited by R. naevius. Our results suggest that this functional group of hummingbirds may be split into even smaller groups, namely short-billed and long-billed hummingbirds, based on different sites of pollen placement. Although both species were pollen vectors of V. rodigasiana, the short-billed T. glaucopis was its most effective pollinator in the area supporting Stebbin’s principle, linking floral features and good pollinators.

The First Illumina-Based De Novo Transcriptome Sequencing and Analysis of Safflower Flowers

BackgroundThe safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L., is a worldwide oil crop, and its flowers, which have a high flavonoid content, are an important medicinal resource against cardiovascular disease in traditional medicine. Because the safflower has a large and complex genome, the development of its genomic resources has been delayed. Second-generation Illumina sequencing is now an efficient route for generating an enormous volume of sequences that can represent a large number of genes and their expression levels.Methodology/Principal FindingsTo investigate the genes and pathways that might control flavonoids and other secondary metabolites in the safflower, we used Illumina sequencing to perform a de novo assembly of the safflower tubular flower tissue transcriptome. We obtained a total of 4.69 Gb in clean nucleotides comprising 52,119,104 clean sequencing reads, 195,320 contigs, and 120,778 unigenes. Based on similarity searches with known proteins, we annotated 70,342 of the unigenes (about 58% of the identified unigenes) with cut-off E-values of 10−5. In total, 21,943 of the safflower unigenes were found to have COG classifications, and BLAST2GO assigned 26,332 of the unigenes to 1,754 GO term annotations. In addition, we assigned 30,203 of the unigenes to 121 KEGG pathways. When we focused on genes identified as contributing to flavonoid biosynthesis and the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, which are important pathways that control flower and seed quality, respectively, we found that these genes were fairly well conserved in the safflower genome compared to those of other plants.Conclusions/SignificanceOur study provides abundant genomic data for Carthamus tinctorius L. and offers comprehensive sequence resources for studying the safflower. We believe that these transcriptome datasets will serve as an important public information platform to accelerate studies of the safflower genome, and may help us define the mechanisms of flower tissue-specific and secondary metabolism in this non-model plant.

Safe sex in plants

Safe sex in plants

Accumulation of Tetracoumaroyl Spermine in Matricaria chamomilla during Floral Development and Nitrogen Deficiency

The new natural polyamine conjugate 1N,5N,10N,14N-tetracoumaroyl spermine (tetracoumaroyl spermine) recently isolated from chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) flower heads is applicable for the treatment of several human disorders such as depression and anxiety. High variability in the level of tetracoumaroyl spermine is found in commercial tisanes. Accumulation of tetracoumaroyl spermine was tested during fl oral development, and nitrogen deficiency was chosen as its putative limiting environmental factor. It was observed that tetracoumaroyl spermine is present mainly in tubular flowers, reaching its maximal content during the 3rd phase of flowering when the corollae of tubular flowers start to open. The later observed decrease could result from a release of pollen that also contains a considerable amount of tetracoumaroyl spermine. It is likely that tetracoumaroyl spermine plays an important role in pollen development, and so, despite overall N-deficiency in the plants, tetracoumaroyl spermine is accumulated at the same or even higher rate than in the flowers of the N-sufficient control.

Internal and external flavonoids from the leaves of Japanese Chrysanthemum species (Asteraceae)

Flavonoids in the leaves of 17 species and 4 varieties of Japanese Chrysanthemum were surveyed. Nine flavonoid glycosides were isolated and identified as quercetin 3- O -rutinoside, eriodictyol 7- O -glucuronide, luteolin 7- O -rutinoside, 7- O -glucoside and 7- O -glucuronide, apigenin 7- O -glucoside and 7- O -glucuronide, chrysoeriol 7- O -glucuronide and acacetin 7- O -rutinoside. The taxa were divided into three chemotypes by their flavonoid characters, i.e. I) occurrence of flavone, flavonol and flavanone, II) occurrence of flavone and flavanone and III) occurrence of flavone alone. The chemotypes almost agreed with the system based on morphological, cytological and geographical characters, i.e. Group I) the taxa growing on seashore and having tubular flowers alone, Group III) the taxa of the Asian Continent origins and having both tubular and ligulate flowers. Others were included in Group II which was subdivided into four groups by flavonoid characters. Twelve external flavonoids were isolated and identified as acacetin 7- O -rutinoside, luteolin, nepetin, 5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxy-6,5′-dimethoxyflavone, apigenin, hispidulin, 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-6,3′,5′-trimethoxyflavone, jaceosidin, sudachitin, eupatilin, hymenoxin and pectolinarigenin. The distribution patterns of almost all external flavonoids were apparently irregular among the taxa. ► Flavonoids in the leaves of 21 taxa of Japanese Chrysanthemum were surveyed. ► Nine internal flavonoids and twelve external flavonoids were identified. ► Their taxa were divided into three chemotypes by internal flavonoid characters. ► The chemotypes almost agreed with the system based on morphological, cytological and geographical characters.

Fast Quality Assessment of German Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) by Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction: Influence of Flower Development Stage

For an adequate quality evaluation of aromatic plants grown under different conditions, a rapid, simple and sensitive method for the analysis of volatile constituents is indispensable. The main objective of the present study was to compare fast screening of German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) by means of headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) with conventional isolation of the essential oil (steam distillation-solvent extraction (SDSE)) for the differentiation of chamomile essential oil constituents. Flowers were harvested at two distinct development stages: stage I, when ligulate flowers start to develop and tubular flowers are still closed, and stage II, when tubular flowers are partially to completely opened. Dried chamomile flowers at two development stages were extracted by means of both SDSE and HS-SPME, followed by GC-MS analysis. Among 30 compounds detected, (E)-beta-farnesene (49%), artemisia ketone (10%) and germacrene D (9%) were the predominant volatile components in the HS-SPME-extract, while alpha-bisabolol oxide A (42%), chamazulene (21%) and (Z)-spiroether (8%) were the main essential oil constituents among the 13 compounds obtained by SDSE. After statistical analysis of the data, both techniques enabled the same conclusion: (E)-beta-farnesene was the only compound which showed significant differences between the two flower development stages. These results suggest that HS-SPME-GC-MS can be used as a sensitive technique for the rapid screening and quality assessment of M. chamomilla.

The effect of different nitrogen fertilization rates on yield and quality of marigold (Calendula officinalis L. 'Tokaj') raw material

Pot marigold (<i>Calendula officinalis</i> L.) is an annual ornamental plant which is also grown for herbal raw material (flower heads) used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. A field experiment was carried out in the years 2006-2008 in the Experimental Farm of the University of Life Sciences in Lublin. The study was conducted on loess soil with the granulometric composition of silt loam. The aim of the experiment was to determine the effect of different nitrogen rates (0, 40, 80, 120, 160 kg N × ha<sup>-1</sup>) on some morphological features of flower heads as well as on yield and quality of pot marigold raw material. Flowering of pot marigold was shortest in the control treatment (32 days) and longest (43 days) in the plot where nitrogen fertilization had been applied at the highest rate (160 kg N × ha<sup>-1</sup>). Nitrogen fertilization had a significant influence on the number of flower heads per plant, but no significant difference was found in diameter as well as in ligulate flowers and tubular flowers in the flower head. It was found to increase significantly raw material yield after the application of 80 kg N × ha<sup>-1</sup>, compared to the control treatment. Yield of flower heads did not differ markedly for fertilization rates from 80 to 160 kg N × ha<sup>-1</sup>. Nitrogen fertilization modified slightly essential oil content (this content increased with increasing nitrogen rates), but at the same time it decreased the percentage of flavonoid compounds.

Accumulation of Tetracoumaroyl Spermine in Matricaria chamomilla during Floral Development and Nitrogen Deficiency

The new natural polyamine conjugate 1N,5N,10N,14N-tetracoumaroyl spermine (tetracoumaroyl spermine) recently isolated from chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) flower heads is applicable for the treatment of several human disorders such as depression and anxiety. High variability in the level of tetracoumaroyl spermine is found in commercial tisanes. Accumulation of tetracoumaroyl spermine was tested during floral development, and nitrogen deficiency was chosen as its putative limiting environmental factor. It was observed that tetracoumaroyl spermine is present mainly in tubular flowers, reaching its maximal content during the 3rd phase of flowering when the corollae of tubular flowers start to open. The later observed decrease could result from a release of pollen that also contains a considerable amount of tetracoumaroyl spermine. It is likely that tetracoumaroyl spermine plays an important role in pollen development, and so, despite overall N-deficiency in the plants, tetracoumaroyl spermine is accumulated at the same or even higher rate than in the flowers of the N-sufficient control.

Experimental evidence for bird pollination and corolla damage by ants in the short-tubed flowers of Erica halicacaba (Ericaceae)

Unrelated plants pollinated by similar animals tend to show convergent evolution of floral traits. Floral syndromes have been used successfully to develop hypotheses about pollination systems but can be misleading when plants have unusual floral morphology or mechanisms of pollen transfer. A case in point is Erica halicacaba, a local endemic shrub on the Cape Peninsula of South Africa. Its short-tubed greenish-yellowish flowers with a narrow aperture have been considered to be insect pollinated. However, field observations, selective exclusion experiments and analysis of pollen loads all indicate that its primary pollinator is the Orange-breasted Sunbird (Anthobaphes violacea). These sunbirds were common visitors and netted individuals carried large numbers of E. halicacaba pollen tetrads on their culmens, rather than on their head plumage as is typical for Cape Erica species with longer tubular flowers. Plants of E. halicacaba from which vertebrates were excluded had a lower incidence of anther tripping and set significantly fewer seeds than those exposed to both birds and insect visitors. Nectar in E. halicacaba is present in small concentrated amounts and, typical of sunbird-pollinated plants, is dominated by sucrose. Flowers often had holes in their corollas and we identified ants, specifically Myrmicaria nigra, as the likely agents. This was supported by reduced rates of corolla damage on branches from which crawling insects such as ants were experimentally excluded. These findings indicate that considerable caution should be applied when attempting to predict pollinators from floral syndromes, and highlight the role that crawling insects can play in damaging flowers.

Fenologia reprodutiva, biologia floral e polinização de Allamanda blanchetii, uma Apocynaceae endêmica da Caatinga

(Fenologia reprodutiva, biologia floral e polinizacao de Allamanda blanchetii, uma Apocynaceae endemica da Caatinga). A fenologia reprodutiva, a biologia floral, o mecanismo de polinizacao e o sistema reprodutivo de Allamanda blanchetii A.DC. foram analisados em populacoes naturais na Fazenda Almas, Paraiba, Brasil. Allamanda blanchetii e uma especie arbustiva, endemica da Caatinga, com floracao de fevereiro a julho e pico nos meses de marco e abril. A frutificacao acompanhou a floracao e estendeu-se ate o mes de setembro. As flores sao tubulares e de coloracao rosa, cuja forte hercogamia evita a autopolinizacao. O polen e depositado na parte superior da cabeca do estilete (regiao nao receptiva), ainda na fase de botao em pre antese (anteras deiscentes), caracterizando a apresentacao secundaria de polen. As flores produzem uma media de 36,6 µL de nectar, o qual e o unico recurso para os visitantes florais. Allamanda blanchetii e auto-incompativel e os resultados sugerem mecanismo de incompatibilidade de acao tardia. Seus atributos florais estao relacionados com as sindromes de melitofilia e psicofilia e, de fato, os polinizadores registrados foram a abelha Eulaema nigrita Lepeletier como principal polinizador e quatro especies de borboletas que atuam como polinizadores secundarios. A ocorrencia de forte hercogamia, apresentacao secundaria de polen e mecanismo de auto-incompatibilidade indicam o elevado grau de especializacao dos sistemas de polinizacao e reproducao de A. blanchetii.

Reproductive biology of Monttea aphylla (Scrophulariaceae)

Monttea aphylla is an aphyllus shrub abundant in the Monte Desert, Argentina. This species presents particular floral syndromes including violet, tubular flowers with trichome elaiophores that produce oil. Oil flowers are associated with specialised bees with an oil-collecting apparatus. To better understand the reproductive biology of M. aphylla, the mating system, flowering phenology, the associated pollinator assemblage and foraging behaviour was determined at the southern-most part of its distributional range. Results were compared with those of previous studies and discussed. At this southern location M. aphylla is a self-incompatible species; it relies on pollinators for fruit production and presented a low fruit set. Flowering occurred during the spring, from October to December. M. aphylla was pollinated by three species of bees (Apidae); two generalist species (Centris brethesi and Mesonychium jenseni) and one specialist to M. aphylla (Centris vardyorum). M. jenseni is a cleptoparasite of Centris species. Centris species are oil-collecting bees and showed territorial behaviour (i.e. they always visited a restricted group of plants which they protected from other visitors), they visited several flowers/plants, which enhanced geitonogamous self-pollination and reduced pollination efficiency, and which might explain the low natural fruit set observed in M. aphylla. C. vardyorum was the most important pollinator of M. aphylla in the study area. The reproductive biology of M. aphylla differs along its distributional range. Apparently, southern populations of M. aphylla are more specialised than the northern populations, the former being pollinated by a few related pollinator species whereas at the northern location a variety of visitors were observed.

Assessment of plant development, morphology and flavonoid content in different cultivation treatments of Calendula officinalis L: , Asteraceae

The objective of this study was to examine the influence of cultivation treatments on plant development, morphology and flavonoid content in Calendula officinalis L., Asteraceae. The cultivation treatments were liming (LIM), liming + organic fertilizer (LORG) and liming + NPK chemical fertilizer (LCHEM). The experiment was completely randomized with sixty repetitions and the means were compared by ANOVA and Duncan's test (significance of 95%). The results show that LORG and LCHEM produced greater plant development compared with LIM treatment. The LORG treatment also produced plants with greater homogeneity, fresh mass, and higher numbers of flowers per plant, but lower biomass of flower produced by each individual. Morphoanatomical variations were also observed with tubular flowers with yellow centres (TCA) and tubular flowers with brown centres (TAC) that produced a higher content of flavonoids (1.41 and 1.44% respectively), compared with ligulate flowers with yellow centres (LCA) and ligulate flowers with brown centres (LAC) (0.89 and 0.95% respectively). The chemical compounds in the flowers of calendula viewed by thin-layer chromatography showed that the treatments did not have any influence on the qualitative chemical profile of the plant. However, cultivars of calendula that underwent treatment LCHEM produced a greater quantity of total flavonoids (1.14%) against 1.04% for LORG and 1.03% for LIM.

Ecology of plant speciation

Ecology of plant speciation

Morfoanatomia da flor de cinco espécies de Galipea Aubl. e seu significado na evolução de flores tubulosas entre as Rutaceae neotropicais

A maioria dos generos da subtribo neotropical Galipeinae (tribo Galipeeae, Rutoideae) tem flores tubulosas, com varias formas e graus de conacao e adnacao. Galipea e outros generos na subtribo apresentam apenas duas anteras ferteis mais cinco ou mais estaminodios, o que e intrigante porque na tribo predominam flores pentâmeras isostemones. Visando elucidar a condicao anatomica dessas caracteristicas e estabelecer estados acurados para caracteres em analises filogeneticas, um estudo morfoanatomico de flores de cinco especies de Galipea foi realizado, buscando os padroes de vascularizacao, posicao, e uniao dos segmentos da flor. Destacam-se os resultados: 1) um tubo floral genuino se forma no terco basal da flor por conacao dos filetes e adnacao desse tubo estaminal as petalas; 2) as petalas sao distalmente coerentes umas as outras e aderentes aos filetes por meio de entrelacamento de tricomas densos - um caso de pseudossimpetalia; 3) dentre as cinco (as vezes seis) estruturas tratadas como estaminodios, apenas as tres externas sao de fato homologas a estames esterilizados, as demais surgem como ramificacoes adaxiais das petalas; 4) os carpelos sao peltados, congenitalmente conatos axial e lateralmente da base do ovario ate o nivel das placentas, e no estilete e estigma; na zona mediana e superior do ovario eles sao unidos apenas posgenitalmente, com a epiderme diferenciada de carpelos contiguos e suturas evidentes na regiao ventral de cada carpelo; 5) a vascularizacao do disco sugere origem receptacular. As implicacoes desses dados para o entendimento da evolucao das flores tubulosas em Galipea e grupos relacionados sao discutidas.