Tuber Coxae Research Articles

Thoracolumbar Movement in Sound Horses Trotting in Hand and on the Lunge

Reasons for performing studyLameness negatively affects the welfare of horses; it often coexists with thoracolumbar pain. The mechanisms linking the two are not well understood.ObjectivesTo document thoracolumbar movement in subjectively sound horses comparing straight lines with circles on left and right reins; to relate these observations to the objectively determined symmetry/asymmetry of hindlimb gait.Study designCross‐sectional study.MethodsFourteen non‐lame horses were trotted in straight lines and lunged on a 10 m diameter circle on left and right reins and inertial sensor data collected at landmarks: withers, 13th (T13) and 18th thoracic vertebrae, 3rd lumbar vertebra, tubera sacrale, left and right tubera coxae. Data were processed using published methods [1]; pitch and roll, dorsoventral and lateral motion and symmetry within each stride were assessed.ResultsDorsoventral motion during one stride had a sinusoidal pattern with 2 oscillations. The greatest amplitude and symmetry (119 ± 4 mm, 96 ± 1% in straight lines vs. 127 ± 5 mm, 94 ± 1% in circles) occurred at T13. Circles induced greater rotation around the transverse axis (>1.3°, P = 0.002) and movement in a lateral direction (>16 mm P = 0.002), greater dorsoventral amplitude and asymmetry; however, the latter differences were nonsignificant. There were no significant differences between reins. The difference in the left and right hindlimb stance phases and the 2 oscillations of the thoracolumbar were significantly associated. Greater circle‐induced upward movement of a tuber coxae during the contralateral hindlimb stance was associated with greater circle‐induced asymmetry of the 2 oscillations of the thoracolumbar (P = 0.04).ConclusionsMoving on a circle induces measurable changes in thoracolumbar movement compared with moving in straight lines, associated with alterations in the hindlimb gait.Ethical animal research: The study was approved by the Ethical Review Committee of the Animal Health Trust. Owners gave informed consent for their horses' inclusion in the study. Source of funding: RVC PhD funding of Line Greve. Competing interests: None declared.

Ultrasonographic visualization of the liver in sites recommended for blind percutaneous liver biopsy in horses.

To ascertain the frequency of ultrasonographic identification of liver at sites recommended for blind percutaneous liver biopsy in middle-aged horses and to determine whether the liver is obscured by other organs or too thin for safe sample collection at recommended locations. Prospective case series. 36 healthy middle-aged (between 3 and 18 years old) Quarter Horses or Quarter Horse crosses [Corrected]. Blood samples were collected from each horse and submitted for evaluation of liver function. Horses with any indication of liver dysfunction on serum biochemical analysis were excluded. The region just below a line drawn between the dorsal aspect of the tuber coxae and the point of the elbow joint in the right 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th intercostal spaces (ICSs) was imaged by ultrasonography for the presence of liver. In each ICS, liver thickness and whether there was partial obstruction in viewing the liver caused by other abdominal or thoracic organs were recorded. 39% (14/36) of horses had liver imaged on ultrasonographic examination in all of the 11th to 14th ICSs. None of the 36 horses had liver of adequate thickness (ie, liver thickness ≥ 3.5 cm) for biopsy in all of the imaged ICSs. For 22 horses in which the liver was not visible on ultrasonographic examination of an ICS, lung was imaged instead in 12 (55%) horses, intestine in 8 (36%), and both intestine and lung in 2 (9%). On the basis of the results of this study, the practice of blind percutaneous liver biopsy in horses is not recommended because of the risk of serious complications.

The Effect of Hindlimb Studs on Movement Symmetry in Horses During Lungeing

Reasons for performing studyHorseshoe studs are commonly used to increase traction between the foot and the ground in competition horses. Here we investigate the question of how hindlimb studs alter limb function by quantifying upper body kinematics during circular motion (lungeing).ObjectivesThis study quantified the effects of studs placed in the hind shoes on head and pelvic movement symmetry parameters commonly used for objective assessment of lameness.Study designProspective longitudinal interventional study.Methods15 horses were trotted on the straight and lunged on left and right circles on turf with/without a pair of studs in both hind shoes. Movement symmetry was assessed using inertial sensors mounted on poll, os sacrum and left and right tuber coxae. To eliminate the influence of the number of left/right asymmetrical horses in the sample, symmetry values were standardised to show left fore and/or right hind asymmetry on the straight. Differences in standardised head and pelvic symmetry index (SI) with and without studs were calculated and paired t tests were used to compare SI values with and without studs on the straight and on both reins.ResultsUse of studs resulted in a significant difference (P = 0.02) in pelvic SI on the right lunge only but no difference for straight line and left lunge (both P>0.05). No significant difference was found for head movement symmetry (all P>0.05).ConclusionsPelvic movement was altered with the ‘weaker’ right hindlimb (based on the calculation of standardised SI values) on the inside of the circle creating an increased ‘hip hike’. In general, horses show increased limb angles and lower peak vertical force with the inside limb; our kinematic results show that this effect is exacerbated with studs. Future studies should investigate whether this ‘intervention’ is of diagnostic potential in sub‐clinically hindlimb lame horses.Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the owners and trainers whose horses were used in this study.Ethical animal research: The Royal Veterinary College Ethics and Welfare Committee approved this study and all procedures were performed with informed owner consent. Sources of funding: Funding was provided by The Royal Veterinary College for Harriet Sharp and Sophie Hopkins’ research projects. Competing interests: None.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of xylazine administered by the intravenous or intra-osseous route in adult horses.

In certain situations, an alternate route for parenteral drug administration in horses may be useful. The intra-osseous (IO) route may provide a safe alternative to the intravenous (i.v.) route for administration of sedatives to horses when the i.v. route is inaccessible or undesirable. Six adult horses were administered xylazine i.v. or IO in a block-randomized crossover design. For the i.v. trial, both jugular veins were catheterized, and one was used for xylazine administration, while the other was used for blood collection. For the IO trial, one jugular vein was catheterized for blood collection and an intra-osseous device was placed in the tuber coxae using a powered driver for xylazine administration. Heart rate, respiratory rate, and head position were measured, and concentration of sedation was assessed at various times up to 90min. Xylazine concentrations were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography and noncompartmental analysis was performed. General linear mixed modeling and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used for statistical analysis, with P≤0.05. There were no significant differences in heart rate, respiratory rate, head position, concentration of sedation, Cmax , Tmax , half-life, or AUC between the i.v. and the IO routes of drug administration. No complications were observed following placement of the intra-osseous device. Intra-osseous xylazine administration provides a useful option in emergent and other settings in which i.v. access is difficult or contraindicated.

Optimal Gait Parameters for Quantifying the Effect of Diagnostic Analgesia in Horses

IntroductionEvaluating responses of horses to diagnostic analgesia is subject to bias. Pelvic movement symmetry can be measured accurately with inertial sensors, but it is unclear which of the many symmetry measures best reflect changes. It was hypothesised that objective parameters mimicking commonly observed visual parameters used by veterinarians (difference between upward/downward sacral movement and between amplitudes of left and right tuber coxa motion) would show the largest, most consistent responses.Methods13 horses underwent visual lameness scoring and independent gait assessment with inertial sensors during clinical lameness investigations. Multiple movement symmetry parameters were calculated and changes before/after diagnostic analgesia regressed against change in lameness grade. Confidence intervals of slopes of regression lines were assessed to identify significant changes.ResultsAll parameters showed variation between horses and across lameness grades. Three measures documented a consistent increase in symmetry for each grade of change in lameness score: difference between sacral displacement minima, and upward movement difference and range of motion difference between the tubera coxae. A change in symmetry of 9–13% for each grade of increase in lameness can be expected.ConclusionsThe three most promising pelvic parameters for consistent quantification of changes due to diagnostic analgesia in the hindlimb of lame horses were identified. Difference in upward movement between left and right tuber coxae is the most sensitive but requires simultaneously focusing on pelvic and limb movements and may therefore be more difficult to assess visually. Showing a similar response to diagnostic analgesia, the difference in movement amplitude between left and right tuber coxae may be more easily perceived since it does not require simultaneous focus on limb movement.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was approved by the local ethics committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: None declared. Competing interests: none.

An Investigation of Relationships between Horse and Rider Pelvic Asymmetry

IntroductionAsymmetry of the horse and rider partnership is a challenging and complex area. There is limited scientific research regarding the occurrence of misalignments in the horse and rider, and if there is any relationship between the two. This study investigated asymmetry of single horse and rider combinations focusing on pelvis asymmetry.Methods14 single horse/rider combinations (minimum 6 month partnership) on the same daily routine were assessed. Horses and riders were assessed for misalignments of the pelvis, spine, and neck by a fully qualified human and animal (McTimoney) practitioner on the same day. Triplicate measurements of rider dorsal iliac crest (IC) distance (nearest 0.2 cm) and degree of tilt (0d.p) were recorded, sitting and standing, using a PALM palpation meter to calculate IC height discrepancy. Triplicate horse tuber coxae (TC) heights (nearest 0.5 cm) were measured using a plumb line. Difference between means indicated direction and value of asymmetry relative to symmetry of zero. Student's t‐test and Pearson's Product Moment correlation examined asymmetry relationships.ResultsMean rider IC height discrepancy, standing, was 0.89 ± 0.64 cm and sitting, 1.00 ± 0.66 cm. Mean TC height discrepancy was 1.3 ± 1.6 cm. Asymmetry of the pelvis was a feature of 93% of horse/rider combinations, 85% occurring in the same direction. There was a significant positive correlation between horse TC and rider IC height discrepancies (r2 = 0.4, F = 8.24, P = 0.014).ConclusionsThis study provides positive evidence of a relationship between the direction of horse pelvic rotation and rider pelvic tilt and also between the degree of tilt and rotation. This has implications for physical therapy treatment of horse and rider. Further research of causal effect relationships of the asymmetries is recommended.Ethical Animal ResearchProcedures were reviewed by the McTimoney Chiropractic College Ethical Review Committee. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.

Thoracolumbar Flexion‐Extension During Water Treadmill Walking

IntroductionWater treadmill exercise is used for rehabilitating horses with back dysfunction, yet little is known about the effect of this type of exercise on back movement.Methods8 horses walked in water level with the hoof, fetlock, hock and stifle. Reflective markers over the dorsal spinous processes of T6, T10, T13, T18, L3, L5 and S3 and left and right tuber coxae were used to measure flexion‐extension range of movement (F‐E ROM) around T10, T13, T18, L3 and L5, vertical displacement of the pelvis (Pelvic ROM) and vertical distance between T13 and L5 (lowest and highest point of the back). 3D coordinates were tracked using ProReflex cameras. 5–9 strides were analysed for each horse at each water height. Repeated measures ANOVA and post hoc tests were used to determine differences in measured variables between water heights (P < 0.05).ResultsPeak flexion of T10, T13, T18 and L3 occurred in hock height water. Peak extension of T18, L3 and L5 occurred in stifle height water without a significant difference in F‐E ROM between water heights (P>0.05). Pelvic ROM was greatest in stifle height water, with no significant difference between water heights. The vertical distance between T13 and L5 was greatest in stifle height water (P<0.05 between hoof and hock height water) as a result of an elevation of L5 relative to T13.ConclusionsAs water height increases L5 is elevated relative to T13, increasing the tendency for extension of the thoracolumbar spine. To maximise thoracolumbar flexion and avoid extension, water at hock height is more beneficial then stifle height water.Ethical Animal ResearchProject approved by Hartpury College Research Ethics Committee. Sources of funding: Hartpury College. Competing interests: none.

Vertical Displacement of the Equine Pelvis When Trotting on an Aqua Treadmill

IntroductionHydrotherapy is increasingly applied within the equine industry for rehabilitation and therapy. Substantial anecdotal evidence exists suggesting the benefits of its application but while there is extensive literature on the use of aqua‐treadmills in humans and canines there is comparatively little in equines. Therefore, limited research exists supporting the role of the aqua‐treadmill in current therapy practices. This study aimed to investigate the effect of water depth on pelvic movement during aqua‐treadmill exercise.MethodsEight horses were trotted on an aqua‐treadmill at four water depths specifically measured to individual horses (P3, fetlock, MC3, carpus). Pelvic displacement was recorded using an optical motion capture system to collect coordinates from markers placed on the tuber sacrale, tuber coxae, withers and lumbar spine. Data were processed using custom written scripts (Matlab®) and ANOVA was performed.ResultsAll subjects demonstrated a significant increase in vertical displacement of the pelvis as water depth increased from P3 to carpus while displacement symmetry was not significantly altered with a change in water depth.ConclusionsThe common practice of increasing water depth to intensify the physical demands of the exercise while maintaining the desired movement symmetry is supported. Having knowledge of how a horse moves on an aqua‐treadmill is vital for tailoring specific therapy in order to most successfully rehabilitate the horse from injury. Investigation of the effects of increasing water depth on asymmetric horses should be carried out to further support its application as a tool for rehabilitation.Ethical Animal ResearchEthical approval was obtained from the Ethics Review Committee at Moulton College. Owner consent was granted for all subjects and all horses were handled in compliance with British Horse Society standards throughout the trials. Sources of funding: Thomas Harrison Trust at Moulton College. Competing interests: none.

Estimation of vertical tuber coxae movement in the horse from a single inertial measurement unit

Pelvic movement is altered in hind limb lame horses. A simple method using one inertial measurement unit (IMU) attached to the sacrum, which objectively measures ‘hip hike’, will help detecting hind limb lameness in large scale studies. In this study, IMUs over the sacrum and the left and right tuber coxae (TC) quantified vertical movement symmetry (MS) in 10 clinically lame horses. A simple geometrical model was used to estimate TC movement from the sacrum IMU. The differences between measured and estimated MS values (mean±SD) and MS changes during different exercise conditions (straight, circle, flexion) were quantified using established MS parameters to assess the performance of the sacral IMU for estimating TC movement.Mean differences between measured and estimated MS values were variable between horses and ranged from 5 to 30mm, SD of differences ranged from 7 to 14mm. However, the difference between measured and estimated change in MS induced by lungeing or flexion test, was lower, with a value <1mm for one MS measure, which assesses differences between left and right TC movement. Estimating TC movement from sacral movement does not accurately quantify the true state of TC MS since limits of agreement (LoA) overlap the decision boundaries for detecting mild lameness. The LoA of changes in vertical TC movement between exercises compared favourably with the average changes between exercise conditions. While in moderate to severe cases, changes in TC movement may be estimated from a single sensor over the sacrum, in mildly lame horses it should be measured with additional sensors.

Accuracy and precision of equine gait event detection during walking with limb and trunk mounted inertial sensors.

The increased variations of temporal gait events when pathology is present are good candidate features for objective diagnostic tests. We hypothesised that the gait events hoof-on/off and stance can be detected accurately and precisely using features from trunk and distal limb-mounted Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs). Four IMUs were mounted on the distal limb and five IMUs were attached to the skin over the dorsal spinous processes at the withers, fourth lumbar vertebrae and sacrum as well as left and right tuber coxae. IMU data were synchronised to a force plate array and a motion capture system. Accuracy (bias) and precision (SD of bias) was calculated to compare force plate and IMU timings for gait events. Data were collected from seven horses. One hundred and twenty three (123) front limb steps were analysed; hoof-on was detected with a bias (SD) of −7 (23) ms, hoof-off with 0.7 (37) ms and front limb stance with −0.02 (37) ms. A total of 119 hind limb steps were analysed; hoof-on was found with a bias (SD) of −4 (25) ms, hoof-off with 6 (21) ms and hind limb stance with 0.2 (28) ms. IMUs mounted on the distal limbs and sacrum can detect gait events accurately and precisely.

Proximal hindlimb flexion in the horse: Effect on movement symmetry and implications for defining soundness

Flexion tests are a common tool during the prepurchase and clinical lameness examination, yet studies quantifying the effect of flexion, apart from distal forelimb flexion in sound horses, are sparse. To investigate the effect of proximal hindlimb flexion on perceivable and measurable changes in movement symmetry in horses with objective movement symmetry falling within the margins of 'sound'. Thirteen horses, selected based on objective movement symmetry, were instrumented with inertial sensors on left and right tuber coxae and over the os sacrum. Vertical movement symmetry was quantified at trot before and after proximal hindlimb flexion, with a repeat of flexion after 5 min. Video recordings of the horses were assessed visually. Proximal hindlimb flexion introduced additive changes in movement symmetry to the individual baseline movement, with a tendency towards smaller effects with increasing stride number. The main systematic effect was a decrease in upward movement of the os sacrum following mid-stance of the flexed limb and an increase in upward movement following mid-stance of the nonflexed limb, also manifesting in a 'hip hike' of the flexed limb; these findings reflected increased movement asymmetry following flexion. Depending on individual baseline asymmetry, flexion can also increase movement symmetry. Proximal hindlimb flexion can exacerbate subtle asymmetry when performed carefully. Variation in measured symmetry following flexion within and between horses showed that the individual response to flexion is highly variable. Proximal hindlimb flexion may elevate the asymmetry of a slightly lame limb above the threshold for visibility, thus assisting in the clinical gait examination. Further work is needed to examine the causes for a positive response to flexion and possible differences between sound and lame horses as well as horses of different athletic disciplines.

Vertical head and trunk movement adaptations of sound horses trotting in a circle on a hard surface

Trotting a horse in circles is a standard and important part of the subjective equine lameness examination, yet objective data on this form of locomotion are sparse. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of trotting in a circle on head and trunk movement symmetry. Vertical movements of the head, withers, os sacrum and left and right tuber coxae were measured using inertial sensors as 12 sound horses were trotted on a hard surface in a straight line and in a circle on both reins. Seven asymmetry measures and hip hike were calculated for each horse for at least nine strides of comparable stride duration across the three conditions (deviation on horse level ≤3.7% stride duration). Trotting in a circle introduced systematic changes to the movement pattern of all five body landmarks, affecting most asymmetry measures. On average the asymmetry magnitude was comparable for midline locations between reins and for the tuber coxae on opposite reins with few exceptions, although individual horses showed unsystematic differences between the two reins. The results from this study showed that the thresholds for objective discrimination between lame and non-lame horses will need adjustment on the circle due to the observed asymmetry bias.

Ultrasonographic description of the caudal and ventral lung borders in normal Warmblood horses

Summary The aim of the study was to describe the caudal and ventral lung border in clinically normal horses more precisely than it had been described previously and also to resolve the contradictions of data published in standard textbooks. Twenty-two healthy Warmblood horses were used in the study. The lung border was determined by 2-dimensional ultrasonography at the following anatomical levels: tuber olecrani, tuberositas deltoidea of the humerus, tuberculum majus of the humerus, tuber ischiadicum and ventral, mid- and dorsal points of the tuber coxae. Examinations were performed bilaterally at the end of inspiration and expiration. Distances between the actual lung borders and corresponding anatomical levels were measured and compared statistically. The results showed that the olecranon could not be used as an anatomical landmark. Instead, the deltoid tuberosity could be used as an alternative, as the lung border was found in the 7th intercostal space (ICS) in 14 horses and in the 8th ICS in 8 horses. The lung border at the level of the tuberculum majus was found in the 10th ICS in every horse. At the level of the tuber ischiadicum, the lung border was detected equally in the 14th (11 horses) and 15th (11 horses) ICS. At the level of the ventral and midpoint of the tuber coxae, the lung border was found in the 15th or 16th ICS. No lung border was found at the level of the dorsal point of the tuber coxae or in the 17th ICS.

Spinal Cord Infarct in a Calf after Aortic Catheter Implantation

Spinal Cord Infarct in a Calf after Aortic Catheter Implantation

Comparison of kinematic symmetry index calculations and the effects of straight and circular trotting

When assessing lameness in horses, left to right ratios of kinematic parameters are often used to quantify movement symmetry. Different methods of symmetry related measures have been proposed and inertial sensor data was used to evaluate the application of 3 methods of symmetry calculation during straight and circular trotting. To compare 3 sensor based methods of symmetry index calculation to assess; tuber coxae vs. sacrum motion, the effects of circular trotting and effect of using whole trials in place of individual stride calculations. Inertial sensors were attached to the sacrum, left and right tuber coxae (LTC/RTC) of 21 non-lame horses. Straight and circular trotting data were collected. Symmetry indices based on vertical movement were calculated for each stride using 3 previously published methods. Method 2 (Fourier analysis) had significantly higher ratio values than method 1 (displacement amplitude ratio; tuber coxae) and methods 1 (displacement amplitude ratio; sacrum) and 3 (difference between LTC/RTC displacement). The effect of circular trotting within methods was highly variable, but was not significantly different between methods. No significant differences were found between whole trial and individual stride calculations. Method 2 when compared to method 1 underestimates the asymmetry present in a non-uniform way due to the use of squared amplitudes. Methods 2 and 3 become less accurate during circular trotting due to changes in amplitude timing. On the same data substantial differences in symmetry indices are found when using different methods and locations. Further differences exist in accuracy when used on circular data. Interpretation and direct comparison of different symmetry indices should be approached with caution.

A preliminary model study of the equine back including activity of longissimus dorsi muscle

Identifying the underlying problem of equine back pain and diseases of the spine are significant problems in veterinary orthopaedics. A study to validate a preliminary biomechanical model of the equine back based on CT images including longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle is therefore important. Validation of the back model by comparing the shortening of LD muscles in the model with integrated EMG (IEMG) at stance during induced lateral flexion of the spine. Longissimus dorsi muscle activity at stance has been used for validation. EMG electrodes were placed laterally at the level of T12, T16 and L3. Reflective markers have been attached on top of the spinous processes T5, T12, T16, L1 and the sacral bone (OS1, OS2) for motion tracking analysis. A virtual model of the equine's back (T1-S5) was built with inclusion of a simplified LD muscle by 2 separate contours left and right of the spine, starting at tuber coxae laterally and attaching to the spinous process T5 medially. Shortening of LD during induced lateral flexion caused by the kinematic data (input) was compared to the 3 EMG signals (T12, T16 and L3) on the active side via correlation. Pearson correlation coefficient between IEMG and shortening length of LD in the model was (mean ± s.d.) 0.95 ± 0.07 for the left side and 0.91 ± 0.07 for the right side of LD. Activity of the LD muscles is mainly responsible for stabilisation of the vertebral column with isometric muscle contraction against dynamic forces in walk and trot. This validation requires muscle shortening in the back, like induced lateral flexion at stance. The length of the shortening muscle model and the IEMG show a linear relationship. These findings will help to model the LD for forward simulations, e.g. from force to motion.

Comparison of the osteogenic potential of equine mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow, adipose tissue, umbilical cord blood, and umbilical cord tissue

To determine the optimal osteogenic source of equine mesenchymal stem cells (eMSCs) and optimize collection of and expansion conditions for those cells. 10 adult Quarter Horses and 8 newborn Thoroughbred foals. eMSCs were isolated from bone marrow (BM), adipose tissue, and umbilical cord blood and tissue, and the osteogenic potential of each type was assessed. Effects of anatomic site, aspiration volume, and serum type on eMSC yield from BM were investigated. BM-eMSCs had the highest overall expression of the osteogenic genes Cbfa1, Osx, and Omd and staining for ALP activity and calcium deposition. There was no significant difference in BM-eMSC yield from the tuber coxae or sternum, but yield was significantly greater from the first 60-mL aspirate than from subsequent aspirates. The BM-eMSC expansion rate was significantly higher when cells were cultured in fetal bovine serum instead of autologous serum (AS). eMSCs from BM possessed the highest in vitro osteogenic potential; eMSCs from adipose tissue also had robust osteogenic potential. The tuber coxae and the sternum were viable sources of BM-eMSCs in yearlings, and 60 mL of BM aspirate was sufficient for culture and expansion. Expanding BM-eMSCs in AS to avoid potential immunologic reactions decreased the total yield because BM-eMSCs grew significantly slower in AS than in fetal bovine serum. Additional studies are needed to determine optimal ex vivo eMSC culture and expansion conditions, including the timing and use of growth factor—supplemented AS.

Osteoblastic differentiation of human and equine adult bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells when BMP‐2 or BMP‐7 homodimer genetic modification is compared to BMP‐2/7 heterodimer genetic modification in the presence and absence of dexamethasone

Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMDMSCs) have been targeted for use in enhancement of bone healing; and their osteogenic potential may be further augmented by genes encoding bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP's). The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of genetic modification of human and equine BMDMSCs with BMP-2 or -7 or BMP-2 and -7 on their osteoblastogenic differentiation in the presence or absence of dexamethasone. The BMDMSCs were harvested from the iliac crest of three human donors and tuber coxae of three equine donors. Monolayer cells were genetically modified using adenovirus vectors encoding BMP-2, -7 or both and cultured in the presence or absence of dexamethasone. Expression of BMPs was confirmed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). To evaluate osteoblastic differentiation, cellular morphology was assessed every other day and expression and secretion of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), as well as expression levels of osteonectin (OSTN), osteocalcin (OCN), and runt-related transcription factor-2 (Runx2) were measured for up to 14 days. Human and equine BMDMSCs showed a capacity for osteogenic differentiation regardless of genetic modification or dexamethasone supplementation. Dexamethasone supplementation was more important for osteoblastogenic differentiation of equine BMDMSCs than human BMDMSCs. Genetic modification of BMDMSCs increased ALP secretion with AdBMP-2 homodimer having the greatest effect in both human and equine cells compared to AdBMP 7 or AdBMP 2/7. BMP protein elution rates reached their maximal concentration between day 4 and 8 and remained relatively stable thereafter, suggesting that genetically modified BMDMSCs could be useful for cell-based delivery of BMPs to a site of bone formation.

Dairy farmer attitudes and empathy toward animals are associated with animal welfare indicators

Attitudes and empathy of farmers influence human–animal interaction, thereby affecting their behavior toward animals. The goal was to investigate how measures of attitude and empathy toward animals were associated with animal welfare indicators such as milk yield, mastitis incidence, fertility index, and the prevalence of skin lesions on cows. To assess empathy toward animals, a photo-based pain assessment instrument was developed depicting various conditions that could be associated with some degree of pain in cattle and included questions aimed at assessing attitudes toward animals. Photos of painful conditions are useful in eliciting measurable empathic responses to pain in humans. A total of 221 farmers were sampled via e-mail and 154 responses were obtained. In the first analysis, farmers were categorized into 2 groups according to their agreement or disagreement with the attitude statement “animals experience physical pain as humans do.” In the second analysis, farmers were assigned a median pain assessment score obtained from their estimates on the visual analog scale of 21 conditions assumed painful for cattle. In the third analysis, farmers were clustered in 3 groups according to their visual analog scale responses. Three conditions were ranked as the most painful: fracture of tuber coxae, dystocia, and serious mastitis. Farmers with positive attitudes toward animals scored 2 points higher on their empathy score compared with farmers with negative attitudes. Personal experience with each additional condition resulted in a 0.09 higher score. Cluster analysis revealed 3 groups. Farmers in group 3 had the highest median pain assessment score (6.7±0.2), indicating a high level of empathy and a positive attitude toward animals. They had the lowest prevalence of skin lesions over the carpus (24±6%) and the lowest milk production (6,705±202kg). The complex associations between indicators of empathy and attitudes with relevant welfare outcomes suggest that competence building to safeguard animal welfare could benefit from including both attitudes and empathy in human–animal interactions studies.

Attitudes of veterinary students to pain in cattle

Three hundred veterinary students were divided randomly into two groups to answer a questionnaire inquiring how painful they considered 23 conditions affecting cattle (seven of which were illustrated) to be,...