Tsarist Russia Research Articles

Скромное обаяние современных стереотипов об иноземцах и ясаке в России XVI–XVII вв.

Research objectives: The main purpose of the study is to consider some fairly actively used stereotypes and their validity. Research materials: The reason for writing the proposed publication article was the work of A.Yu. Konev “The phenomenon of ‘foreignism’, yasak and gift exchange: the peoples of the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia in Russia at the end of the 16th – beginning of the 18th centuries.” Published and newly discovered archival materials were its source basis. Results and novelty of the research: Within the framework of this article, we can distinguish two plots about stereotypes, quite different in nature, but relating, to a large extent, to one group of the population of Russia in the 16th–18th centuries – yasak people or yasak foreigners. According to the first stereotype, the unbaptized non-Russian population of the Russian state were not among the subjects of the Russian tsar, or at least not to the full extent. The authors usually do not provide any real justification for this point of view, but if they try to do so, they point to restrictions regarding unbaptized yasak and service people and to baptism as a way to obtain additional preferences (implementing a rise in social standing). At the same time, if we turn to the documents of the middle of the 18th century, we will see that officials and scientists of that time had no doubts that the yasak unbaptized population were Russian subjects from the moment their territories became part of this state. With a high degree of probability, we can admit that the formation of this stereotype dates back to the period of the predominance of the ideologeme “Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Nationality” and is the result of extrapolation to the situation of the 16th–17th centuries representations of the second half of the 19th century. The second stereotype is less obvious, but quite serious. It consists of ignoring the information contained in a huge layer of documents of the 16th–17th centuries, namely, indications that yasak was collected from estates, and the presence of patrimonial lands was the basis for paying yasak. The reverse is also true – the payment of yasak gave rights to patrimonial lands. This information is contained in tsars’ decrees, orders to governors – that is, legislative documents. But until now, the bulk of specialists dealing with the history of the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia simply did not notice these places in the documents. This is a kind of stereotype of ignoring the obvious. Meanwhile, based on the text of these documents, it is obvious that yasak can be considered only bearing in mind the status of the lands from which it was paid, indicated in the sources. This is true for territories from the Volga region to Central Siberia. Obviously, the time has come to change approaches to these issues. The scientific novelty of the study lies largely in the attempt to read and translate sources (often long published and well-known) as they were, discarding the “filters” formed by the historiographical tradition.

Ancient Heritage in the History of the Synod by Paisius Ligarides, Metropolitan of Gaza: Dedication to the Russian Tsar

The History of the Synod, compiled at the beginning of 1667 by Paisius Ligarides, Metropolitan of Gaza († 1678), shortly after the condemnation of Patriarch Nikon († 1681) at the Great Moscow Synod (1666), has long attracted the attention of researchers. However, it is studied without involving the Greek text and its complete translation into Russian. The arrangements made between the middle and second half of the nineteenth century differ from the original in their selectivity and inaccuracy. The anonymous Russian translation, short and unprofessional, resembles a free paraphrase; in comparison with the Russian version, the English one, belonging to the British theologian and historian W. Palmer († 1879), is closer to the original in content. However, it omits complex phrases and designations of culture-specific Russian elements and contains the translator’s comments. The stumbling block for interpreters was Ligarides’ appeal to Antiquity, a literary device that characterises the writer’s style in the Moscow period of his life (since 1662). Appeals to ancient authors and writings and techniques dating back to ancient rhetoric are scattered throughout the History of the Synod, but there are many of them in the dedication to the client, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. This article considers the problem of ancient heritage in the History of the Synod with reference to this introductory section. An analysis of the content of his three themes – the idealisation of Antiquity, the appointment of history and the dignity of the ruler – helps reveal the significance of ancient culture and mythology to the writer. The appeal of the Metropolitan of Gaza to the classical heritage correlates with didactic and educational tasks. Ligarides supported the messianic idea, popular with the Greek clergy, about the significance of Moscow – the heir of Rome and the ruler of Moscow as the liberator of Christian peoples from the Muslim yoke. Approving the Byzantine model in the issue of separation of powers, according to which the secular ruler was an absolute monarch, Ligarides oriented Alexei Mikhailovich to follow the example of the rulers of the ancient era, who had the virtues of the kingcreator, triumpher, and enlightener. Encouraging the Russian elite to become more familiar with the ancient heritage and thus contributing to the Europeanisation of court culture, the Metropolitan brought closer the situation called the antiquity of Russian culture by philologists.

�Turkestan Collection� � chronicle of the life of the Kazakh people of the XIX-XX centuries

Relevance. Among the sources about Kazakhstan, a special place is occupied by the work of the famous bibliographer-local historian of tsarist Russia V.I. Mezhov �Turkestan collection of works and articles� relating to Central Asia in general and to the Turkestan region in particular. Undoubtedly, the �Turkestan Collection� is a very interesting and very important work for Kazakhstan as a whole, especially for the study of national history, as it can be assessed as one of the first and very successful steps taken to systematically summarize the main Russian and foreign written sources about Kazakhstan in the XIX and early XX centuries.Purpose. This study aims to evaluate the significance of the �Turkestan Collection� in the context of Kazakh national history and journalism. It seeks to explore how this collection has been utilized in historical research and the breadth of information it offers about the Kazakh people and their cultural heritage.Methodology. The research primarily involves a detailed review of the contents of the �Turkestan Collection�, examining the types of documents included and their relevance to various academic fields. The study also considers the historical context in which the collection was assembled and its subsequent use in scholarly works.Results. The �Turkestan Collection� has proven to be a critical asset in historical and cultural studies, providing insights not only into the history of journalism in Kazakhstan but also into the broader socio-cultural dynamics of the XIX-XX centuries. The collection�s diverse materials have supported significant scholarly inquiries and contributed to a deeper understanding of the Kazakh people�s heritage.Conclusions. This study underscores the collection�s continued relevance and potential to inform future academic works. The findings advocate for more comprehensive investigations into the collection to unlock further details about the region�s past and its journalistic endeavors.

ეთნოეკონომიკის ზოგიერთი საკითხი

In the paper, based on a complex analysis of ethnographic materials, interesting issues of ethno-economics are discussed. In particular: The reasons for the beginning of the process of emptying rural settlements, which is still ongoing, but originates from the last quarter of the 19th century; the consequences of rejecting the willing rule of standing next to each other in labor-activity; Integrating modern means of ennobling personal economic and social status ("living affordably") into everyday life. The following are the reasons for the emptying of the countryside and the abolition of traditional farming: 1. neglecting traditional, time-tested approaches to "people's life", farm management; 2. Abolition of traditional local community governance, for example, replacement of the "Makhvshi" institution with "trickster-savvy, salaried" administrators; 3. The gradual replacement of unity, work for each other with the approach "to be mine". We mean that on the way to economic security, the "rule of unselfishness help" was forgotten. 4. "legally recognized" binding relationships that did not take into account human capacity. Replacing the faith-boosting "begar" with "an inappropriate natural tax imposed on you by law"; 5. Forgetting the habit of asking God for "provided happiness". It is revealed that before the government launched various economic programs to raise social welfare, the individual and the community themselves were oriented to get a better life and distribute the "benefit" to their family and external needs. On the basis of complex research, the historical meaning of the terms: "Scream", "Bad Monday", "Letting go" and "Peace", "Begara" is revealed; Also, the name of a better economic condition obtained by "faithful and calculated work" - "comparatively better being". It is worth noting the fact that ethnographic materials once again confirmed the opinions of Georgian economists that physiocratic views were always predominant for the Georgian space, until the consciousness of our population was formed on the basis of national-Georgian morality. This was reflected not only in various types of legislation, but also in literature. Only "The knight in the panther skin" and "Wisdom of Lies" are enough to prove this. However, after the disruption of the Georgian statehood by Tsarist Russia and, later, the Sovietization, the thinking of the citizens of Georgia changed and adapted to the new reality, which should be perceived as an adequate response to the change in environmental conditions. However, historical experience shows that this process had a negative impact on the current situation and future prospects of our country. Before the state took over social and economic functions, the community itself was responsible for the well-being of its members. We may think that in the conditions of the so-called “collective responsibility”, the area of individual responsibility is lost, however, in the case of the community, it was the concern for the well-being of another; by being willing to share the risks associated with the life of a “neighbor” without benefit, a community member insured himself and his family's well-being. As a result, all this, “relatively better living” obtained by “faith and commited work” can be called the “communit’s economy”. Although it was subject to general economic laws, but the moral and social characteristics of local society were highlighted in it, in the formation of which a decisive role ws played by religion and historically formed traditions. The ethno-economy is what we used to describe this situation.

A GENERAL EVALUATION ON MIGRATION MOVEMENTS IN KAZAKHSTAN FROM THE PAST TO THE PRESENT

Kazakhstan, which has experienced many migrations throughout its history, has witnessed various migrations on different dates in order to increase agricultural production during both the Tsarist Russia and the USSR periods. There have been significant migrations in Kazakhstan since the collapse of the USSR. Today’s migrations are no longer a result of major economic policies, but a result of individuals’ personal choices. Every year, more and more well-educated young people leave Kazakhstan for a better future. This situation has negative consequences for the country. On the other hand, many immigrants migrate to the country to live in Kazakhstan. The number of immigrants in the country has reached 20% of the country’s population.The main purpose of this study is to analyze the migrations experienced in Kazakhstan throughout the historical process and especially today, their causes and consequences, with the help of data from international organizations such as IOM and UNHCR, and in this context, to propose solutions to the problems experienced.

The Riddle of the “Great Person”. The European Wanderings of Prince Pyotr Alekseevich Golitsyn

The article attempts to solve a riddle that has occupied historians for 250 years. We are talking about the authorship of travel notes by a certain “Great Person” who made a great European voyage in 1697–1699: from Moscow to Holland, then south along the Rhine to Southern Germany; through the Austrian Alps to the states of Italy and further, repeating the return journey from Venice to Amsterdam, through Hamburg and Riga to Moscow. For a long time it was believed that the “Great Person” was the young Russian Tsar Peter Romanov, who went to Europe in those years as part of the Great Embassy. However, the routes of Peter I and the unknown Anonymous person obviously do not coincide, and this prompted historians to take a closer look at other candidates for “Great Person”. In recent years, a mysterious Anonymous Person has been sought among the second-rate participants of the Great Embassy, who for some reason broke away from the parent group. Gradually, the opinion was formed that the “Great Person” is just an “idle traveler”, and his travel notes are nothing more than a “tourist diary”. Based on the study of new materials, the author of this article proves that a personal friend of Tsar Peter, the future famous diplomat and statesman, Prince Peter Alekseevich Golitsyn (1660–1722) traveled around Europe under the name of a “Great Person”.

‘I Am not Actually Aware of the Great Cause of Yours. Yet, Had Your Letter Been Delivered to Me for Certain, Would Have Rejoiced Particularly’: Two 1713 Letters of Kalmyk Khan Ayuka to Russian Tsar Pyotr I Alekseevich

‘I Am not Actually Aware of the Great Cause of Yours. Yet, Had Your Letter Been Delivered to Me for Certain, Would Have Rejoiced Particularly’: Two 1713 Letters of Kalmyk Khan Ayuka to Russian Tsar Pyotr I Alekseevich

Nietzsche and the Politics of Nihilism

This essay aims to provide another perspective on how the problem of nihilism operates within Nietzsche’s works by reading him against the thought of Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, one of the first philosophers to introduce the classical modern sense of nihilism. Since Nietzsche makes no mention of Jacobi, this essay reads Nietzsche’s analysis of nihilism as a silent reply to the founding problem of nihilism as Jacobi conceived it, namely the crisis of piety, and against the historical backdrop from which Nietzsche first truly encountered nihilism as a phenomenon, namely the 1881 assassination of Russian Tsar Alexander II. This essay will, additionally, briefly outline the various sources (historical, literary) Nietzsche had access to and contributed to his knowledge of nihilism.

„Die Kosakenbraut. Eine siebenbürgische Erzählung“ aus dem Nachlass von Otto Fritz Jickeli

Abstract The writer Otto Fritz Jickeli (1888-1960) turned to events of the 19th century in his unpublished story Die Kosakenbraut. The revolution of 1848 /49 forms the chronological axis for the events in the description, with their befor and after. The episodes do not lack the unusual moments that occur in times of revolutionary upheaval. As is well known, the Imperial Austrian troops were supported in their fight against Hungarian revolutionaries by the Tsarist Russian army, and the armies of the insurgents finally succumbed to this military alliance of the great powers. The changing fortunes of war, the events effecting private life are vividly presented, also with the help of a spontaneous love affair between a Cossack commander of the Russian army and a Transylvanian woman who, under problematic circumstances, becomes the „Cossack bride” and mother of a half-Cossack. It is both fluent and stimulating reading about the customs and moral concepts of the time, aprose work that testifies to the author’s expertise and also to this sense of humour.

‘And There Will Be No Russian Tsar and No Polish Lord…’: The Ukrainian Populist Utopia of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius in a Transnational Perspective

ABSTRACT The secret revolutionary society of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius (1845–1847) was the first modern Ukrainian political organization. Its political aims were an abolition of serfdom, overthrowing the Russian tsar, and democratisation of the Russian tsardom. Among the Brotherhood's members were the ‘founding fathers' of Ukrainian national movement: Mykola Kostomarov (1817–1885), Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861), and Panteleimon Kulish (1819–1897). In this paper, I describe the Brotherhood's intellectual vision for the future of Ukraine as a populist utopia formed of a Slavic federation of peoples-nations that would be based on freedom and equality guaranteed by unorthodox Christian ethics. Furthermore, I compare the two Brotherhood's symbols of oppression of Ukrainian peoples: a Russian tsar and a Polish lord. I consider the Brotherhood's populist utopia in a transnational perspective, demonstrating its intellectual links to other post-Napoleonic revolutionary societies and authors in Europe. I show how the Brotherhood merged local Ukrainian Cossack mythologies and folk culture with the internationalist slogan of the French Revolution ‘liberty, equality, fraternity’.

Yakov Bok: A Humanist’s Odyssey in Bernard Malamud’s The Fixer

In a Jewish context, a man experiences numerous upheavals for which he bears no responsibility. In Bernard Malamud’s novel The Fixer the central character, Yakov Bok, undergoes a compelling journey. This journey takes us through the turbulent world of Tsarist Russia where a Jewish individual is fraught with hardships. In fact, Bok’s odyssey reveals the profound challenges inherent in the existence of a Jewish man within the societal context. This paper aims at dissecting the profound transformation of Yakov Bok against the backdrop of a society rife with prejudice and injustice. It also broods over how Bok’s journey, marked by unjust imprisonment and enduring suffering, catalyzes his evolution from an ordinary Jew to an extraordinary human being. Yakov Bok emerges as a heroic figure, staunchly confronting the systemic victimization of innocent individuals within the complexities of his society. Further this research article explores how the immediate context of the novel is resonating with universal themes of human struggle and resilience. Yakov Bok’s narrative serves as a powerful allegory for the broader human experience, emphasizing the enduring relevance of these themes in contemporary society. The article elucidates the painful existence of a Jewish protagonist by portraying his life’s trajectory as a metaphor for poignant dilemmas confronting humanity in the current era. Within this intricate narrative, His tough journey is marked by the endurance of profound adversities notwithstanding his impeccable innocence in a criminal charge. At the same time, it traces his metamorphosis from an unremarkable Jew into a formidable luminary. What it finally affirms is that the freedom to live is not merely the freedom to experience, but also ironically the freedom to struggle and even to suffer.

Presentation of the Culture of the Kazakh People at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century in the Press of Tsarist Russia

ABSTRACT The article analyses publications in the periodic press about the tribal composition, ethnographic features, traditions and other features of the Kazakh people in the “Turkestan collection.” A textual analysis of research papers on the culture of the Kazakh people of the early twentieth century is given. The historical and cultural data on the Kazakhstan and Central Asia peoples in the “Turkestan collection” are critically evaluated by comparing them with studies conducted in Soviet times. Historical information about how the revolution in Russia in February 1917 affected the lifestyle of the Turkestan peoples is attached.

France's position on the Polish-Bolshevik war 1919-1920

France emerged victorious from the First World War, but had to face complex international problems of regional, ideological and military nature. Its former ally, Tsarist Russia, which represented a counterweight to the defeated but powerful Germany, was in the midst of a civil war, in which the Bolsheviks prevailed and began to declare the necessity of exporting the revolution to Western European countries. As a result, the Red Army, which advanced westward, clashed with the newly established Polish state, which was completely dependent on the Western countries.
 For the Poles, this was a struggle with both communism and the perennial Russian imperialism. The Western countries helped Poland, especially France, which was seen as the real wall of Western Europe against the Bolsheviks and their communist ideology, and the assistance provided by the French army contributed to some extent to the victory of the Polish Republic, but the Paris government was contradictory regarding the disputed regional issues. To appreciate the nature of this French - Russian - Polish "triangle", it must be seen in a larger historical context in which the Poles were never an equal partner to the French.
 
 Received 6/6/2023, 
 Accepted 5/8/2023 , 
 Published 30/9/2023.

Captain Botsis’ Odyssey: On the Biography of the Russian Naval Commander

Referring to archival data of the RGADA (Relations with Venice Fund), this article provides new information about the little-known period of life (1700–1703) of Ivan Botsis related to his transition to the Russian service and directly preceding it. Until now, there is no full-fledged biography of the outstanding associate of Peter the Great, and this study supplements the information about his life full of dangers. Botsis played a significant role in Russia’s success in the Baltic Sea during the Northern War, so filling the gap in his biography is of particular interest. Based on the information introduced into scholarly circulation, the author draws information about his activities immediately after the Morean War (1684–1699). Although he is primarily known as a Russian naval commander, based on the data studied, one may conclude that in his homeland, he proved himself to be a loyal subject of his new homeland, the Venetian Republic, in military affairs. And after the end of the conflict and the conquest of the Peloponnese by Venice, showered with honors, he tried to succeed in a peaceful profession, trading business, and not so much as a merchant but as a coordinator of the commercial activity of his compatriots for private and public benefit. At the peak of his career, the enterprising and even adventurous nature of the Greek captain led him to a conflict with the Venetian and Ottoman authorities, and the hope for the Russian tsar as the deliverer of the Greeks from Turkish rule and sympathy for his military enterprises during the Northern War made him abandon a privileged position in his homeland and embark on a perilous journey to Russia to serve Peter I. The details of his risky escape, described in a petition addressed to the tsar, resemble an excerpt from an adventure novel. The appendix of the article contains previously unpublished documents, i. e. a petition of Captain Botsis and an excerpt of a decree of Tsar Peter on the allocation of his salary.

The Heritage of Tsarist Russia’s Military Forts as an Object of Postcolonial Revision: Case of the Kaunas School of Art Building 1922–1923

The aim of the article is to rethink which objects in contemporary Lithuania are worth being European cultural heritage and which are not — as many of them are now being used by the neighboured aggressive country as examples (politicised arguments) for today’s Russia’s imperial historical narratives. Results of the research demonstrate that the discussion on mitigations of Tsarist Russia’s military forts heritage is a new topic, as the recent decades in Lithuania have shown that the heritage of military forts’ architecture in the post-soviet decades is being protected even more than in Soviet Russia’s occupation period. So, this trend in Lithuanian cultural Heritage research emerges as an object worth deeper postcolonial revision. Significant is building the future from the past. Within this frame of thinking, the article invites us to remember the national history and select well-known cases from the country’s past as most valuable for national and cultural identity. The example of the famous 100-year-old Art School building in Kaunas city (which in the interwar period 1918–1940 was the temporary capital of the Republic of Lithuania) was chosen as the article’s main case study. After 100 years, there are no longer any doubts or debates as to how much the area of the 9th battery in Kaunas Oaks Hill (Ąžuolų kalnas) has “suffered” due to the fact that the complex of buildings of the Lithuanian national Art School was built in a Tsarist Russia military fortress plot. This is evidenced by the other mentioned cases — today outstanding national cultural heritage objects were built a century ago replacing Tsarist Russia’s military architecture, meanwhile, according to the laws in force today — these buildings should be protected. Conclusions. Russia’s war against Ukraine, it’s the right time to reassess countries’ critical heritage: in which situations it is worth, how much it is worth, and in which it is no longer worth protecting the architectural heritage of military power formed by Tsarist Russia, especially when it is ruined and too difficult to adapt it to the needs of modern people.

The North-Eastern Caucasus as an object of Russian geopolitics (the 17th – 18th centuries)

A feature of the geopolitical position of the political entities of the Eastern Caucasus was the constant claims from Persia and, at times, Turkey. Maneuvering between the Safavids, Ottomans, Girays and Ryurikoviches (then Romanovs) often formed the basis of the foreign policy activities of local rulers. The result of such maneuvering was the periodically arising ‘general servitude’ — recognition of subordination to both the Russian tsar and the Persian shah. Only at the beginning of the 19th century, as a result of the victories of the Russian troops, the question arose about the ofϐicial annexation of the Eastern Caucasus to the Russian Empire.

"The Duty of Perfect Obedience": The Laws of Subjecthood in Tsarist Russia

"The Duty of Perfect Obedience": The Laws of Subjecthood in Tsarist Russia

Panslavismul sovietic - un oximoron ideologic în slujba politicii externe a Uniunii Sovietice (1941 - 1947)

The Bolshevik revolution of 1917 meant, among other things, the elimination of all the ideas that existed during the tsarist period. Among them was Russian Pan-Slavism, a doctrine inspired by the similar movement of the West Slavs that sought to incorporate all Slavic peoples into a single empire, ruled by the Russian Tsar. During the Great Stalinist Terror, the last remnants of all that Slavism meant were eradicated through the so-called "Process of the Slavists", as a result of which dozens of intellectuals who had or were suspected of having a connection with Slavic studies were subjected to repression. However, during the Second World War, the Soviet Union revived the idea of Pan-Slavism, partially shifting the ideological emphasis. In this regard, the All-Slavic Committee was created in Moscow. In the period 1941–1946, the organization played the role of a Soviet propaganda organ in the Slavic countries, especially among intellectuals. Towards the end of the war, the importance of the Committee decreased and it was abolished in 1947.

Prospering despite the adverse terms of emancipation? Accumulation of wealth by peasant farmers in the tsarist Russian province of Livonia, 1853–1913

Prospering despite the adverse terms of emancipation? Accumulation of wealth by peasant farmers in the tsarist Russian province of Livonia, 1853–1913

Religious Situation After Independence in Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan has endured the aftermath of the Soviet invasion following the era of Tsarist Russia, negatively impacting the presence of Islam in the country. The repressive policies of the Soviets have squeezed Muslims in this region. With the collapse of the Soviet regime in 1990, a new phase began, marking a new era for Muslims in Kazakhstan. This paper examines the religious life of Kazakhstani Muslims after independence, focusing on the religious services of the Kazakhstan Muslims’ Religious Administration (KMDB), recognized as the Official Representative of Kazakhstani Muslims. For clarity, this institution will be referred to as the Kazakhstan Religious Affairs Presidency or simply KMDB. The institution operates in Kazakhstan, overseeing services in various areas, including universities, madrasas, and mosques. Its goal is to provide services for the Islamic religion as well as propagation and outreach efforts for Islam. To fulfill these services, it has gained accreditation and recognition from the state. In addition to carrying out religious services for Muslims, the Kazakhstan Religious Affairs Presidency strives to counter both social and political operations targeting Muslims. One such operation involves efforts to steer Muslims away from Islam and back towards religious rituals rooted in old Turkic traditions. Kazakhstan has a significant population of Russified Kazakhs, who are a target of these efforts. As an extension of these endeavors, thousands of religious scholars were killed during the Soviet era, and religious literature was destroyed. Today, controlling the Muslim community in religious aspects remains a state policy. Nevertheless, Islam and Muslim identity in Kazakhstan are gradually becoming institutionalized and established. The Kazakhstan Religious Affairs Presidency adapts its religious services to contemporary conditions, utilizing channels such as television, radio, and, notably, social media. The Hanafi tradition takes precedence in religious structure and presentation. Publications in Turkish, Arabic, and Russian have reached significant levels. The Kazakhstani people exhibit a determination to remain committed to Islam and the religious responsibilities inherited from history.