Truth Judgments Research Articles

Imprecision in meaning measured by inconsistency of indexing

AbstractMeaning is defined as the relevance of a word to the concept it labels. Following Hillman, meaning is tetradic: the relation of a word and a concept, to a degree, within a corpus, indexers, in choosing or assigning all words strongly associated with concepts of a document, assert that the document means the word; therefore, consistency of indexing measures the precision with which meaning is understood by the indexers. From an indexing experiment designed to avoid all judgments of truth or correctness of indexing, the following results were obtained: (1) When descriptors are freely chosen, the more descriptors assigned to a document, even when relatively few are assigned, the more difficult is the retrieval of it. (2) By restricting the descriptors used in searching, the disadvantage noted in (1) can be overcome. (3) Possibly, older words are used more frequently and less precisely than newer words. (4) A graph of the total number of applications of a descriptor versus the ranked document serial number lucidly illustrates the precision of meaning of the descriptor; a precisely understood word gives a rectangular curve; a less precise one, an S‐shape. Many words have imprecise meanings even to specialists in scientific fields.

Judgments of Truth by Participants in Collective Controversy

This study uses the Oklahoma battle over prohibition repeal in 1959 to investigate the ways in which participants assessed the truth of conflicting statements of fact. How were such assessments related to the stand taken by the person's reference group? How did the degree of a person's involvement in the controversy affect the assessment? In making judgments participants on both sides followed common psychological principles, which are carefully explained.

Reflexion on the Question of God’s Existence in Contemporary Thomistic Metaphysics: Part Two

REFLEXION ON THE QUESTION OF GOD'S EXISTENCE IN CONTEl\1PORARY THOMISTIC METAPHYSICS PART TWO (Continued from previou8 number) INTRODUCTION T HE survey of the status of the question of God's existence in Thomistic metaphysics imposes the need for the formal reflective element that is now to be undertaken . The positions indicated are advanced as metaphysics' discovery, as its direct knowledge of the truth concerning God's existence. Metaphysics as wisdom has the right of reflexion upon its own inventive process; and given the divergency of positions advanced, the Thomistic metaphysician must assume the obligation of exercising this reflective function concerning the question of God's existence. It is well to restate the conditions of the reflexion in this instance, namely, that the matter at hand is the question of God's existence in its scientific pertinence to Thomistic metaphysics ' process of discovery. The reflexion itself entails a judgment concerning metaphysics' proportion to the discovery of this truth. The varied presentations of authors regarding God's existence result, like their origins, from positions affirmed, or at least assumed, relative to the nature of metaphysics itself. A true judgment, perfective of the reflexion upon the point at hand, must similarly proceed as from its principles, from the clear position of St. Thomas regarding metaphysics' nature and proportion to the truth concerning God. 211 212 THOMAS C. o'BRIEN As has been indicated, St. Thomas' position is clearly presented in his commentary on the De Trinitate of Boetius. The principles regulative of the present reflexion are to be found in the fourth article of the fifth question. At the outset, it is necessary, with this· text at hand, to analyze its argument. The point raised in the article is this: whether divine science is concerned with those things which are without matter and movement? 1 In the development of the response to this question, there are two main steps. First of all, the possibility of some sort of scientific consideration of divine realities is established; then the actual character of the philosophic consideration of these is determined. As to the possibility, speculative science in general, to explain its subject, must concern itself with the principles of that subject. Among principles, some are principles only, and not complete natures in themselves; others are both principles and complete natures. The first .type are not apt matter for any separate consideration but are attained solely in the science of the subject whose principles they are. The other sort are attainable not only in this way, but also as complete natures in themselves they are apt to be the subject of a distinct science. In the science concerning being in common, metaphysics , this twofold class of principles is to be discerned. Furthermore , the principles common to all beings by way of causality are complete natures in themselves. In fact, as beings which are most actual, immobile, most complete, they are divine. For if the divine exists anywhere it ought to exist in this manner.2 Thus in establishing that among the principles attained by metaphysics, there are divine realities, complete natures in themselves, St. Thomas leaves open the possibility of a science which is divine insofar as it considers such realities. As to the character of the philosophic consideration of the divine, however, the power of natural reason is restricted. The 1 The question proposed by this article: Utrum divina scientia sit de his quae sunt sine materia et motu? Ed. Wyser, 43. • Cf. ibid., 46-48. REFLEXION ON THE QUESTION OF GOD'S EXISTENCE 213 only philosophic consideration that is divine science is metaphysics insofar as and exclusively as it attains to the divine as principles of its subject. Any separate consideration of the divine as subject must presuppose a divine manifestation of the divine nature. The final precision resulting from the argument of the article, thus~ is that philosophic theology, otherwise called metaphysics, is divine science solely inasmuch as it considers divine things not as its subject, but as principles of its subject. This is the theology pursued by the philosophers. The theology which is such because it considers divine things as its subject, is that which is presented in Sacred Scripture.8...

The Pure Theory of Government Finance: A Suggested Approach

The Pure Theory of Government Finance: A Suggested Approach

General Average (Continued from page 361, vol. xii)

In considering the various expenses, or, as some writers term them, expenditures, that are the results of a general average act, the same test must be applied as in the case of sacrifices. Were they had recourse to as being, in the exercise of sound judgment and prudence, indispensably necessary for procuring the safety of all concerned in the adventure? Might the act from which they proceeded be the means of arresting any course of events which, if allowed to take their full scope, would terminate in the destruction of the vessel and the consequent loss of the freight and cargo? It is true human judgment is likely to err under these, as in other circumstances of like nature, and expenses may be incurred needlessly, for the ultimate consequences of an act cannot be always perceived; but if the end proposed will admit of no other course by which the vessel and the property in her may be preserved at the time, and if the measures resorted to are such as would not be employed in the ordinary prosecution of the voyage, there is reason for admitting such as a lawful subject of contribution. When common sense is exercised, and the circumstances are regarded comprehensively and clearly, the results are generally found to justify the means adopted in cases of danger needing prompt action.