Truth Effect Research Articles

Exposure to headlines as questions reduces illusory truth for subsequent headlines.

Exposure to headlines as questions reduces illusory truth for subsequent headlines.

COMPARING OFFLINE AND ONLINE ADMINISTRATIONS OF MEASURES OF TRUTH EFFECT, METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS AND WORKING MEMORY IN MALAYSIA DURING THE MOVEMENT CONTROL ORDER (MCO)

This paper described how the truth effect and its relationship with metacognitive awareness and working memory was converted from a physical (offline) administration to an online study due to COVID-19 pandemic-related lockdown measures. The truth effect refers to the tendency for repeated statements to be judged as more true than new statements. Processing fluency is the ease of mentally processing information. The automatic and unreflective mental system associated with processing fluency can be enhanced by repetition. Metacognitive awareness and working memory were conceptualized as a deliberate and analytical cognitive system in the current study. Fifteen offline participants and fifteen online participants were compared on measures of the truth effect, metacognitive awareness, and working memory. There were no significant differences between the offline and online groups in measures of metacognitive awareness, working memory, fluency and the truth effect, suggesting that the online administration of study measures was comparable to traditional methods of administration in a physical laboratory. Even with the small sample size, our findings suggested that statements that were presented more than once were rated significantly more true compared to new information. In conclusion, the truth effect was detected both in online and offline settings in our sample of Malaysian young adults. Our study documented how cognitive tasks can be administered in an online setting using a common teleconference application (i.e., Zoom). Our findings provide support and reference for researchers to conduct research online especially during times of restricted movements and the current climate of working and studying from home.

Truth by repetition … Without repetition: Testing the effect of instructed repetition on truth judgments.

Past research indicates that people judge repeated statements as more true than new ones. An experiential consequence of repetition that may underly this "truth effect" is processing fluency: Processing statements feels easier following their repetition. In three preregistered experiments (N = 684), we examined the effect of merely instructed repetition (i.e., not experienced) on truth judgments. Experiments 1-2 instructed participants that some statements were present (vs. absent) in an exposure phase allegedly undergone by other individuals. We then asked them to rate such statements based on how they thought those individuals would have done. Overall, participants rated repeated statements as more true than new statements. The instruction-based repetition effects were significant but also significantly weaker than those elicited by the experience of repetition (Experiments 1 and 2). Additionally, Experiment 2 clarified that adding a repetition status tag in the experienced repetition condition did not impact truth judgments. Experiment 3 further showed that the instruction-based effect was still detectable when participants provided truth judgments for themselves rather than estimating other people's judgments. We discuss the mechanisms that can explain these effects and their implications for advancing our understanding of the truth effect. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Knowledge-building in surgery: An evolving craft

In surgery, the construction of knowledge is shaped in two scenarios: evidence-based medicine, and experiential learning. The former has become an essential pillar in this process. Based on this fact, clinical practice guidelines have been developed. However, their transient nature, constant renewal, and lack of individualization distance them from daily clinical activity. On the other hand, there is the construction of knowledge through vicarious and experiential learning. Its existence is linked to the beginning of medicine, and its importance is irrefutable. However, it is laden with the “truth effect”, surgical dogma and singularism. When integrating the construction of knowledge in these scenarios, critical thinking skills are paramount and necessary to guide the surgeon in the decision-making process within the context of surgical dynamism. This article explores this situation and its impact.

The interplay of information order and locus of attention on the truth effect in healthy food advertisements

AbstractThe perceived truthfulness of advertised claims plays a vital role in healthy food marketing, shaping positive consumer responses. This study investigates how the presentation order of healthy ingredients and food products commonly featured in advertisements influences the perceived truthfulness of these claims, also known as the truth effect, using the congruency effect as a theoretical framework. Two studies were conducted to explore the impact of the compatibility between a contextual factor (presentation order) and cultural/individual difference (locus of attention) on the subjective experience of processing fluency, and how it subsequently enhances the truth effect, wherein consumers believe the advertised claims about the product. Studies 1 and 2 revealed that individuals, depending on their locus of attention, are more likely to exhibit a heightened truth effect when the food product is presented first, followed by the healthy ingredient as an attribute, or when the information is presented in the opposite order. Additionally, the observed effect was found to be completely mediated by processing fluency. These findings make theoretical and practical contributions by highlighting the role of the congruency effect as a novel determinant of the truth effect.

Repeatedly Encountered Descriptions of Wrongdoing Seem More True but Less Unethical: Evidence in a Naturalistic Setting

When news about moral transgressions goes viral on social media, the same person may repeatedly encounter identical reports about a wrongdoing. In a longitudinal experiment (N = 607 U.S. adults from Mechanical Turk), we found that these repeated encounters can affect moral judgments. As participants went about their lives, we text-messaged them news headlines describing corporate wrongdoings (e.g., a cosmetics company harming animals). After 15 days, they rated these wrongdoings as less unethical than new wrongdoings. Extending prior laboratory research, these findings reveal that repetition can have a lasting effect on moral judgments in naturalistic settings, that affect plays a key role, and that increasing the number of repetitions generally makes moral judgments more lenient. Repetition also made fictitious descriptions of wrongdoing seem truer, connecting this moral-repetition effect with past work on the illusory-truth effect. The more times we hear about a wrongdoing, the more we may believe it—but the less we may care.

“That’s just like, your opinion, man”: the illusory truth effect on opinions

With the expanse of technology, people are constantly exposed to an abundance of information. Of vital importance is to understand how people assess the truthfulness of such information. One indicator of perceived truthfulness seems to be whether it is repeated. That is, people tend to perceive repeated information, regardless of its veracity, as more truthful than new information, also known as the illusory truth effect. In the present study, we examined whether such effect is also observed for opinions and whether the manner in which the information is encoded influenced the illusory truth effect. Across three experiments, participants (n = 552) were presented with a list of true information, misinformation, general opinion, and/or social–political opinion statements. First, participants were either instructed to indicate whether the presented statement was a fact or opinion based on its syntax structure (Exp. 1 & 2) or assign each statement to a topic category (Exp. 3). Subsequently, participants rated the truthfulness of various new and repeated statements. Results showed that repeated information, regardless of the type of information, received higher subjective truth ratings when participants simply encoded them by assigning each statement to a topic. However, when general and social–political opinions were encoded as an opinion, we found no evidence of such effect. Moreover, we found a reversed illusory truth effect for general opinion statements when only considering information that was encoded as an opinion. These findings suggest that how information is encoded plays a crucial role in evaluating truth.

The evasive truth: do mere exposures at the subliminal and supraliminal levels drive the illusory truth effect?

The subjective truth of a statement is boosted by mere exposure to itself or a part of itself. This phenomenon is referred to as the illusory truth effect. We examined whether subliminal pre-exposure to the statement topic would increase its subjective truth. In the exposure phase, participants observed the topic, which was presented supraliminally or subliminally. After the exposure phase, they rated the subjective truth of the statement. If unconscious processing contributed to the illusory truth effect, subliminal exposure to the topic would increase the subjective truth of the statement. On the other hand, if the illusory truth effect required conscious and controlled processing, increases in the subjective truth of a statement would be induced only by supraliminal exposure to the topic. The results showed that the illusory truth effect was not found in either supraliminal or subliminal groups. Our findings provide no reliable evidence that pre-exposure to the statement topic saliently promotes its subjective truth.

Repetition could increase the perceived truth of conspiracy theories.

Conspiracy theories can be encountered repeatedly, which raises the issue of the effect of their repeated exposure on beliefs. Earlier studies found that repetition increases truth judgments of factual statements, whether they are uncertain, highly implausible, or fake news, for instance. Would this "truth effect" be observed with conspiracy statements? If so, is the effect size smaller than the typical truth effect, and is it associated with individual differences such as cognitive style and conspiracy mentality? In the present preregistered study, we addressed these three issues. We asked participants to provide binary truth judgments to conspiracy and factual statements already displayed in an exposure phase (an interest judgment task) or that were new (displayed only in the truth judgment task). We measured participants' cognitive style with the three-item Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), and conspiracy mentality with the Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ). Importantly, we found that repetition increased truth judgments of conspiracy theories, unmoderated by cognitive style and conspiracy mentality. Additionally, we found that the truth effect was smaller with conspiracy theories than with uncertain factual statements, and suggest explanations for this difference. The results suggest that repetition may be a simple way to increase belief in conspiracy theories. Whether repetition increases conspiracy beliefs in natural settings and how it contributes to conspiracism compared to other factors are important questions for future research.

La construcción del conocimiento en cirugía: un proceso artesanal

In surgery, the construction of knowledge is shaped in 2scenarios, evidence-based medicine, and experiential learning. The first has become an essential pillar in this process. Based on this, clinical practice guidelines have been developed. However, their temporality, their constant renewal and lack of individualization distance them from daily action. On the other hand, there is the construction of knowledge through vicarious and experiential learning. Its existence is linked to the beginning of medicine, and its importance is irrefutable. However, it is loaded with the «truth effect», surgical dogma and singularism. The development of a critical sense against the integration of the construction of knowledge in these scenarios is paramount and necessary to guide the surgeon in decision-making in surgical dynamism. This article explores this situation and its impact.

Deep Insight on Land Use/Land Cover Geospatial Assessment through Internet-Based Validation Tool in Upper Karkheh River Basin (KRB), South-West Iran

Recently, the demand for high-quality land use/land cover (LULC) information for near-real-time crop type mapping, in particular for multi-relief landscapes, has increased. While the LULC classes are inherently imbalanced, the statistics generally overestimate the majority classes and underestimate the minority ones. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the classes of the 10 m European Satellite Agency (ESA) WorldCover 2020 land use/land cover product with the support of the Google Earth Engine (GEE) in the Honam sub-basin, south-west Iran, using the LACOVAL (validation tool for regional-scale land cover and land cover change) online platform. The effect of imbalanced ground truth has also been explored. Four sampling schemes were employed on a total of 720 collected ground truth points over approximately 14,100 ha. The grassland and cropland totally canopied 94% of the study area, while barren land, shrubland, trees and built-up covered the rest. The results of the validation accuracy showed that the equalized sampling scheme was more realistically successful than the others in terms of roughly the same overall accuracy (91.6%), mean user’s accuracy (91.6%), mean producers’ accuracy (91.9%), mean partial portmanteau (91.9%) and kappa (0.9). The product was statistically improved to 93.5% ± 0.04 by the assembling approach and segmented with the help of supplementary datasets and visual interpretation. The findings confirmed that, in mapping LULC, data of classes should be balanced before accuracy assessment. It is concluded that the product is a reliable dataset for environmental modeling at the regional scale but needs some modifications for barren land and grassland classes in mountainous semi-arid regions of the globe.

PSIHOLOGIJA VJEROVANJA U TEORIJE ZAVJERE / PSYCHOLOGY OF CONSPIRACY BELIEFS

Conspiracy theories have always existed, and (some) people have always believed in them. However, due to the expansion of contemporary media and information technologies, as well as social networks becoming primary platforms of information, the issue of how conspiracy beliefs affect daily lives has become popular again. Current societal, political and health crises have sparked global research interest in the topic. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, it has become obvious how significant these beliefs are in determining health behavior and adhering to preventive anti-epidemic measures. Therefore, it is of immense importance, both theoretical and practical, to approach the characteristics of this phenomenon scientifically. This article analyzes psychological and social factors of conspiracy beliefs. Through the prism of epistemic, existential and social needs, the article tries to explain what pushes individuals toward the conspiracy theories. It also discusses individual and personality differences as the underpinning basis for susceptibility to conspiracy beliefs. A special focus is put on universal principles of cognitive functioning that boost conspiracy beliefs (confirmation bias, saving cognitive resources, cognitive closure, effect of illusory truth, etc.) Considering their exceptional societal importance, the author puts a special focus on the effects of conspiracy theories on health relevant behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the lack of a clear theoretical framework in this recently emerging research field, the author reflects on existing and potential prevention and intervention tools belonging to social-psychological, health and communication strategies. The importance of the media and information literacy as a means to improve resilience to misinformation is also discussed.

The illusion of pure reason in science: A cautionary note.

Introspection tells people that their behavior is both consciously reasoned and functional (i.e., rational), at least based on the evidence available to them. In contrast, research has found that much human behavior reported to be consciously determined, is strongly influenced by heuristics and the mechanistic principles of associative learning that usually function unconsciously and are sometimes sub-optimal. Scientists are trained to base their conclusions on a rational analysis of evidence, which enhances the scientific validity of their conclusions. But scientific training appears to do little to constrain the role of unconscious heuristics. The present point is that scientists are humans and, as such, they are subject to the influence of heuristics in their scientific conclusions just as laypeople are in their everyday behavior. As an example, the availability heuristic and how it seemingly feeds the repetition-induced truth effect are described. One consequence of this is that failures to replicate frequently cited papers do little to devalue the irreplicable reports. Although unconscious heuristics influence the scientific thinking of researchers, scientists are typically unaware of the role of these heuristics due to their operating below the horizon of introspection. This appears to explain the persistence, in light of overwhelming evidence to the contrary, of the views by many researchers that 'a prediction error is necessary for learning' and that 'reactivated memories have to be reconsolidated to be retained for future access.'

The illusory truth effect leads to the spread of misinformation

Misinformation can negatively impact people's lives in domains ranging from health to politics. An important research goal is to understand how misinformation spreads in order to curb it. Here, we test whether and how a single repetition of misinformation fuels its spread. Over two experiments (N = 260) participants indicated which statements they would like to share with other participants on social media. Half of the statements were repeated and half were new. The results reveal that participants were more likely to share statements they had previously been exposed to. Importantly, the relationship between repetition and sharing was mediated by perceived accuracy. That is, repetition of misinformation biased people's judgment of accuracy and as a result fuelled the spread of misinformation. The effect was observed in the domain of health (Exp 1) and general knowledge (Exp 2), suggesting it is not tied to a specific domain.

Looking Back at the Nehru - Mahalanabis Strategy : A Discourse Analysis

This paper discussed the constitutive relations between the Nehru-Mahalanabis strategy and the discourse of planning that had characterized Indian economic policy-making over 40 years after independence in their continuities and discontinuities of interaction. It understood and analyzed the theoretical underpinnings behind the heavy-scale industrialization policy through public investment (under export pessimism) in reflection of the predominant discourse of development that the third world subscribed to at that period — that of central-planning led capitalist accumulation. Rather than engaging in the multiple debates that had raged the political-economic policy-making of the post-reforms period, like that of agriculture vs. industry, state planning vs. market motive, growth vs. equity, etc., it cut through the analysis by the discourse method, which identified the particular way of knowing the reality – how the discourse produced and disseminated effects of truth, and brought players (e.g., the State) to act and intervene, thereby securing the legitimacy and power of the representation, or the regime of truth of the discourse.

General knowledge norms: Updated and expanded for German.

The general knowledge questions introduced by Nelson and Narens (Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19(3), 338-368, 1980) have been a valuable research tool in various areas of cognitive research. We translated, updated, and expanded the set of questions for German. We present a total set of 356 general knowledge questions with their recall probability as well as metacognitive measures-confidence and peer judgments-based on a university student sample (N = 512). Furthermore, we present response latencies, pairwise correlations between recall probability and metacognitive judgments as well as the most common commission errors. These general knowledge questions can be used in studies with German speaking participants in a broad range of research fields, such as memory, illusory truth, misinformation, and metacognitive processes.

Gesundheitsmythen – Falsche Überzeugungen, nur ein Laienproblem?

Background: Health myths are widespread and have a long shelf life. Both lay people and health professionals are exposed to misinformation. It therefore seems central to ask to what extent lay people and health professionals adopt health myths and what health-related prior knowledge and what informational basis underlies them. Methodology: In order to answer the question, an anonymous online survey (N = 577) was conducted among respondents with no, indirect and direct health-related background. In addition to socio-demographic criteria, 12 health myths, the assessment of safety and the preferred basis of health information were queried. Results: In contrast to lay people, members of health-related professional groups resort to reputable sources of information. However, the findings show that prior health knowledge and reputable sources do not protect against adopting health myths. Conclusion: The results suggest that both lay people and health professionals need to be more aware of the critical and reflective use of health information and of the emergence of health myths and psychological phenomena (e.g. illusory truth effect) of human perception bias.

Repetition effects in memory and truth assessments through the lens of transfer-appropriate processing

ABSTRACT The Transfer-appropriate Processing (TAP) framework has demonstrated enhanced recognition memory when processing operations engaged at encoding and at test match. Our research applied TAP to study the illusory truth effect (ITE). We investigated whether the match/mismatch of evaluative goals at encoding and at test affects the ITE. At encoding, participants saw target words (Experiments 1–3; or full trivia claims Experiments 4–5) and completed an evaluative goal: imagery task or vowel-counting. At test, participants saw target words embedded in trivia claims that were old or new and completed the same (matching) or different (mismatching) evaluative goal that they completed at encoding, before making truth or memory ratings. We found a typical TAP effect for memory judgements when people saw words at encoding, but no TAP effect when people saw claims at encoding. We also found an ITE when people saw claims at encoding, but no ITE when people saw words at encoding (no evidence of TAP moderating truth judgments). Together these results extend both the TAP and ITE literatures, suggesting boundary conditions for TAP and the conditions under which the ITE emerges.

The illusory truth effect with pictorial stimuli

the illusory truth effect with pictorial stimuli

Emerging trends: Unfair, biased, addictive, dangerous, deadly, and insanely profitable

AbstractThere has been considerable work recently in the natural language community and elsewhere on Responsible AI. Much of this work focuses on fairness and biases (henceforth Risks 1.0), following the 2016 best seller: Weapons of Math Destruction. Two books published in 2022, The Chaos Machine and Like, Comment, Subscribe, raise additional risks to public health/safety/security such as genocide, insurrection, polarized politics, vaccinations (henceforth, Risks 2.0). These books suggest that the use of machine learning to maximize engagement in social media has created a Frankenstein Monster that is exploiting human weaknesses with persuasive technology, the illusory truth effect, Pavlovian conditioning, and Skinner’s intermittent variable reinforcement. Just as we cannot expect tobacco companies to sell fewer cigarettes and prioritize public health ahead of profits, so too, it may be asking too much of companies (and countries) to stop trafficking in misinformation given that it is so effective and so insanely profitable (at least in the short term). Eventually, we believe the current chaos will end, like the lawlessness in Wild West, because chaos is bad for business. As computer scientists, this paper will summarize criticisms from other fields and focus on implications for computer science; we will not attempt to contribute to those other fields. There is quite a bit of work in computer science on these risks, especially on Risks 1.0 (bias and fairness), but more work is needed, especially on Risks 2.0 (addictive, dangerous, and deadly).