Hemiptera Research Articles

Resource partitioning among bat species in Peninsular Malaysia rice fields.

Resource partitioning among tropical bats in agricultural areas of Peninsular Malaysia remains unclear. This study was conducted to evaluate resource partitioning among bats by examining their fecal samples. The main bat species sampled included: Rhinolophus coelophyllus, Rhinolophus malayanus, Rhinolophus pusillus, Rhinolophus refulgens, Taphozous melanopogon and Hipposideros larvatus. Two harp traps were set at different elevations on a hilltop (Gunung Keriang) and two high nets were used in neighboring rice fields at three sites, for three consecutive nights per sampling from April 2021 to February 2022. A total of 301 bats and 1,505 pellets were analyzed using a conventional approach which examined the fecal sample under the microscope. All of the bat species within the study had insects from the order Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera in their diet. Larger bats exhibited a greater variety of prey consumption. Male individuals were observed to be generalists while female individuals were specialists, particularly during pregnancy and lactating reproductive stages. Bat species and insect order had a significant impact on the percentage fragment frequency of the insects consumed. Rhinolophus coelophyllus specialized in feeding on Coleoptera and Diptera, H. larvatus fed on Coleoptera, R. malayanus fed on Hemiptera, R. pusillus and T. melanopogon fed on Lepidoptera. Future molecular analysis can be carried out to further identify the insect pests consumed by these bats up to species level. These findings enhance our understanding of bats' ecological roles in agricultural landscapes and contribute to conservation and pest management strategies.

DNA metabarcoding and morphological identification reveal similar richness, taxonomic composition and body size patterns among flying insect communities

Abstract Tracking insect biodiversity trends and predicting future trajectories is limited by a lack of monitoring data across large spatiotemporal scales. DNA metabarcoding is a time‐ and cost‐efficient method to obtain these data, but has several potential limitations in comparison to traditional morphological approaches. For example, metabarcoding may miss low‐abundance or smaller bodied individuals and is limited to presence/absence information, which may bias estimates of biodiversity and community composition. However, few comparisons of metabarcoding and morphology‐based identification have been made using insects, the by far most diverse animal taxonomic group. Here, we compared terrestrial insect communities identified via morphology versus metabarcoding across four different habitats and three seasons (late spring, mid‐summer and early autumn) during 2019. We compared identified species and community richness, composition and body size, with a focus on key taxonomic groups of bees, true bugs, butterflies and hoverflies. We identified 252 total species, with 54.8% identified by both methods, whereas 21.4% and 19.8% were solely detected with metabarcoding or morphology, respectively. Overall, total community richness, taxonomic composition and community body size were similar between methods. Metabarcoding detection successes declined in low‐abundance and smaller taxa, particularly bees, hoverflies and true bugs; however, species richness of hoverflies and butterflies tended to be higher compared with morphological identification. Our results show that metabarcoding can provide an accurate overview of insect community differences that are comparable to those determined via morphological identification. We recommend that insect monitoring programmes consider incorporating metabarcoding, although future research is needed to overcome some remaining limitations.

Exploring horizontal transfer of mariner transposable elements among ants and aphids

Aphids and ants are mutualistic species with a close space-time relationship, which may facilitate the occurrence of horizontal transfer events between these insect groups. Myrmar-like mariner elements were previously isolated from two ant (Myrmica ruginodis and Tapinoma ibericum) and two aphid species (Aphis fabae and Aphis hederae). The aim of this work is to determine the presence of Myrmar-like mariner elements in new ant and aphid species, as well as to analyze the likelihood of horizontal transfer events between these taxa. To accomplish this, the Myrmar-like element has been isolated from five aphid species and six ant species. Among these new analyzed species, full-length Myrmar-like mariner elements with very high sequence similarity have been isolated from the aphids Aphis nerii, Aphis spiraecola, Brachycaudus cardui, and Rhopalosiphum maidis as well as from the ants Lasius grandis and Lasius niger, even though aphids and ants belong to two insect orders (Hemiptera and Hymenoptera) that have evolved independently for at least 300 million-years. Both Lasius species establish frequent mutualistic relationships with multiple aphid species, including A. nerii, A. spiraecola, and B. cardui. The study of the putative protein encoded by them and the phylogenetic analysis suggests that they could be active transposons shared by aphids and ants through horizontal transfer events. Additionally, mariner elements with internal deletion were found in several aphids and one ant species, showing a high degree of sequence similarity among them. The characteristics of these elements with internal deletion suggest a complex origin involving various evolutionary processes, possibly including also horizontal transfer events. Myrmar-like elements have also been isolated from the other ant species, although without similarity with the aphid mariner sequences. Myrmar-like elements are also present in phylogenetically distant insect species, as well as in one crustacean species. The phylogenetic study carried out with all Myrmar-like elements suggests the probable occurrence of horizontal transfer events.

Ramp traps versus pitfall traps for collecting epigeal arthropods: a case study in a coniferous forest in Southwest Finland

ABSTRACT Pitfall traps are commonly used to sample epigeal arthropods, but they are not ideal in areas where soil disturbance is restricted or not possible. Ramp traps are a less well known alternative that does not require excavation. To compare the performance of the two trap types in capturing epigeal arthropods, both ramp (n = 12) and pitfall traps (n = 12) were set up in four paired transects in Korkiakallio forest (Turku, Finland), in summer 2022. The project team identified adult spiders to the species level, and other arthropods to the family level. Ramp traps captured significantly more individuals of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), beetles (Coleoptera), true bugs (Hemiptera), and spiders of the species Minyriolus pusillus (Wider, 1834) (Araneae: Linyphiidae), while pitfall traps captured more myriapods (Myriapoda). Our findings provide additional evidence that ramp traps are not only a viable alternative to pitfall traps in challenging environments, but also complement (and should ideally be used alongside) pitfall traps.

The insect colonisation, succession, and decomposition of the domestic pig (Artiodactyla: Suidae) in southern Ontario, Canada

Abstract Studies documenting insect succession throughout the decomposition of vertebrate remains have been performed in more than half of the provinces and one territory in Canada. However, some areas are not represented in the current published literature. Ontario is one province that does not have published records of local necrophagous insect succession. Therefore, three studies were performed in Oshawa, Ontario, to document the insect community and primary colonisers observed during the decomposition of domestic pig, Sus scrofa domestica (Artiodactyla: Suidae), remains. Adult and immature specimens located on the remains were collected, reared, and identified. Pitfall traps were installed to monitor insects present outside of visits. Pigs that decomposed in higher temperatures yielded fewer colonising dipteran species than those that decomposed in cooler temperatures. The most common primary colonisers were Phormia regina (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Lucilia illustris (Diptera: Calliphoridae), and Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae). In total, 11 Diptera families, six Coleoptera families, and families from the Hymenoptera and Hemiptera orders were observed. When comparing these results to published results from Québec, Ontario’s neighbour, major differences in primary colonisers can be noted. It is therefore important for researchers to study the succession, development, and colonisation patterns of the local fauna during vertebrate decomposition and to publish their findings.

Impact of vereda dryness on the insect herbivore diversity in adjacent cerrado areas in Brazilian Protected Areas

Unravelling the factors that influence plant-insect interactions remains a fundamental concern in terrestrial ecology. In the present study, we evaluated the impact of varying degrees of drying on cerrado areas adjacent to veredas on the species richness, abundance and composition of the insect herbivore fauna. Additionally, we examined differences in these impacts between various guilds (chewing and sucker insects) and developmental stages (adult and immature insects). The research has been performed in study areas located in three Protected Areas in Brazil. In total, we recorded 106 species of herbivorous insects across five orders (Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera). Hemiptera and Coleoptera stood out as the orders with the highest species diversity and individual numbers. Among the families, Cicadellidae and Curculionidae exhibited the highest richness in species and abundance of individuals. We found that richness of herbivorous insects was higher in wet zones (20.2 ± 6.5) of the veredas compared to dry zones (12.3 ± 7.5), as well as the abundance of herbivorous insects was higher in wet zones (49.4 ± 25.5) than in the dry zones (15.8 ± 7.9). Whithin insect guilds, the abundance of chewing insects was higher in wet zones (34.0 ± 13.6) than in dry zones (16.3 ± 14.8), but this difference was not observed for the diversity of sucking insects. Regarding developmental stage, immature insects exhibited higher species richness in wet zones (10.4 ± 5.0) compared to dry zones (5.3 ± 2.1), while adult insect diversity did not show differences between the studied zones. Furthermore, the species composition of herbivorous insects, various trophic guilds (chewers and suckers) and developmental stages (adults and immature insect) did not significantly differ among the zones studied within the veredas. According to our findings, herbivorous insects exhibit a preference for wet environments, which provide better conditions and higher-quality food resources for development and reproduction.

Insect taxa as biodiversity indicators at selected coastal landscape

For monitoring responses of insect arthropods to disturbance, a dataset of 1831 insects was considered. We studied faunal diversity of insects in terraces habitats located on the coast of Lebanon. Insects were sampled from 12 sites having different habitats with one sampling method of combined pitfall-pan trap. This study resulted in nine insect orders and 129 morphospecies. Hymenoptera was the most abundant order in all habitats (63.57%) followed by the orders Diptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Dictyoptera and Thysanoptera. This coast was classified with medium biodiversity index (D) of 0.51 for insect orders and high D of 0.83 for morphospecies. The highest (D) was in field crops habitat (H1) of 0.64 and 0.91 for insect orders and morphospecies, respectively; followed by scrublands (H3), greenhouse areas (H2) and olive orchards (H4). These results indicated that human intervention was affecting the diversity in natural habitats. Five insect orders: Coleoptera, Dictyoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera were significantly selected as potential biodiversity indicators in this coastal area. Thus, for monitoring these bioindicators, a protocol based on operating our combined trap method appears practical in design and yield very diverse material with the target of sustaining these insect populations in the coastal area.

Importance of habitat area, quality and landscape context for heteropteran diversity in shrub ecotones

ContextHabitat loss and degradation impose serious threats on biodiversity. However, not all habitats receive the attention commensurate with their ecological importance. Shrub ecotones (successional stages between grasslands and forests) can be highly species-diverse but are often restricted to small areas as prevalent management practices either promote open grassland or forest habitats, threatening the effective conservation of ecotone species.ObjectivesIn this study, we assessed the importance of habitat and landscape features of shrub ecotones for the rarely studied true bugs (Heteroptera), a functionally diverse taxon that comprises highly specialized species and broad generalists.MethodsTrue bugs were sampled with a beating tray in 118 spatially independent shrub ecotones in a region of 45,000 square kilometers in Germany. In addition to habitat area and landscape context, we used a hedge index to evaluate habitat quality.ResultsShrub ecotones in open habitats harbored a greater species richness and abundance compared to shaded ones in later seral stages, and species composition differed. Richness and abundance were positively affected by increasing habitat area and quality, whereas an increase in the proportion of semi-natural habitats within 1 km only enhanced richness. While feeding and habitat specialists were more sensitive to habitat area reduction than generalists, this was not the case for weak dispersers and carnivores.ConclusionsOur findings emphasize the importance of large and high-quality ecotones that form a patchy mosaic of shrubs and herbaceous plants. Such ecotones can benefit both grassland species and species depending on woody plants. Conservation authorities should balance between promoting shrubs and keeping such habitats open to maximize species diversity.

A new species of Neotropiconyttus Kirkaldy (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) in a cacao plantation from the Colombian Napo Province, including a key to species, and taxonomic notes of the genus.

A new species of the genus Neotropiconyttus Kirkaldy, 1909 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Harpactorinae: Harpactorini) is described and illustrated. Neotropiconyttusarmandoi Gamboa & Gil-Santana, sp. nov. represents the first record of the genus for the Province of Napo in Colombia, and the first description of a male individual in the genus. The male specimen representing the new species was collected on a leaf of cacao (Theobromacacao L.-Malvaceae). Its remarkable similarity in external coloration and structure with that of the true bug Monaloniondissimulatum Distant, 1883 (Hemiptera: Miridae) inhabiting cacao agroforestry systems suggests that the new species could be part of a mimetic complex that incorporates phytophagous and predator bugs. Comments and figures of type specimens of Neotropiconyttusalboannulatus (Stål, 1855) and Neotropiconyttusdama (Burmeister, 1838), and a key to the species of the genus are also provided.

Insights into Bactericera cockerelli and Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum interaction: a tissue-specific transcriptomic approach.

The tomato-potato psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli (Šulc), belonging to the Hemiptera order, is an insect pest of solanaceous crops and vectors a fastidious bacterium, Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum (CLso), the presumptive causal agent of zebra chip and vein greening diseases in potatoes and tomatoes, respectively. The genome of B. cockerelli has been sequenced recently, providing new avenues to elucidate mechanistic insights into pathogenesis in vegetable crops. In this study, we performed RNA-sequencing of the critical psyllid organs (salivary glands and ovaries) involved in CLso pathology and transmission to host plants. Transcriptome analysis revealed differentially expressed genes and organ-specific enrichment of gene ontology (GO) terms related to metabolic processes, response to stress/stimulus, phagocytosis, proteolysis, endocytosis, and provided candidate genes encoding transcription factors (TFs). To examine gene regulatory networks across the psyllid organs under CLso(-) and CLso(+) conditions, we performed weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and unique modules differentiating the psyllid organs were identified. A comparative GO analysis of the unique gene modules revealed functional terms enriched in response to stress, gene regulation, and cell division processes in the ovaries. In contrast, respiration, transport, and neuronal transmission-related GO terms were enriched in the salivary glands. Altogether, this study reveals new insights into tissue-specific expression of the psyllid organs in the absence or presence of CLso bacterium. This knowledge can be leveraged to develop new pest and disease management strategies by delineating the regulatory networks involved in the psyllid-CLso interaction.

Descriptions of new species and new records of water bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Gerromorpha & Nepomorpha) from southeastern Brazil.

Although most of the diversity of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) is terrestrial, over 550 species of water bugs (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha, Leptopodomorpha & Nepomorpha) have been recorded from Brazil alone. Southeastern Brazil, composed of the states of Esprito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo, is the best studied region of the country, but there are still knowledge gaps in the area. Here, two new species are described from Esprito Santo: Hydrometra ruschii Cordeiro, Rodrigues & Moreira, sp. nov. and H. tuberculata Cordeiro, Rodrigues & Moreira, sp. nov. (Gerromorpha: Hydrometridae). Furthermore, new records from southeastern Brazil are provided for 78 species of water bugs, of which 19 are firstly recorded from Esprito Santo, four from Minas Gerais, eight from Rio de Janeiro, and seven from So Paulo.

Diversity and Distribution of Hemipteran Species Associated with Crop Ecosystems in Northwest Morocco

Agriculture plays a crucial role in Morocco, as it not only contributes significantly to the economy but also enhances food security. Within the realm of agriculture, the order Hemiptera encompasses a diverse range of species and behaviors, some of which are notorious for wreaking havoc on crops worldwide. By gaining a deeper understanding of the bugs associated with agroecosystems, we can effectively identify both pests and beneficial species, thereby improving agricultural production. The findings of our study hold immense importance in implementing effective control measures. This paper aims to present a comprehensive checklist of bugs associated with agroecosystems in the north-west region of Morocco. Our study was conducted between the spring and summer of 2019 and 2020, encompassing three different crop fields that represent the major plant formations of the area, namely cereal, broad bean, and alfalfa fields. To ensure a thorough examination, we employed two distinct sampling techniques: mowing net and sight hunting. A total of 6 families of Hemiptera were identified: Reduviidae, Lygaeidae, Pentatomidae, Cercopidae, Scutelleridae, and Alydidae. The information presented in this paper serves as a valuable resource for future studies on Hemiptera associated with agroecosystems in Morocco. By harnessing this data, we can delve into the realm of potential control strategies and craft effective measures to tackle the challenges presented by these insects. This deeper understanding of the bugs within agroecosystems will serve as a catalyst for the development of sustainable and highly productive agricultural practices in Morocco.

Tekirdağ ilindeki (Türkiye) otsu konukçu bitkilerde görülen yaprak biti (Hemiptera: Aphididae) türleri

This research was conducted between 2018 and 2020 in Tekirdağ province and its districts in Türkiye, aiming to identify species of aphids belonging to the Aphididae family on the herbaceous plants in non-agricultural and agricultural fields, urban parks, gardens, and roadsides. The morphological diagnoses of aphids were performed, and based on that, the species from the subfamilies of the Aphididae family belonging to the Hemiptera order, namely Aphidinae, Eriosomatinae, Lachninae, and Chaitophorinae, were identified. Echinophora tenuifolia (L.) and Cachyrs sp. (L.) (Apiaceae) for Anuraphis cachyros (Barbagallo & Stroyan, 1982), Malva neglecta (Wallr.) (Malvaceae) for Aphis (Aphis) nasturtii (Kaltenbach, 1843), Cichorium intybus (L.) (Asteraceae) for Hyperomyzus (Hyperomyzus) lactucae (L., 1758) Achillea sp. (L.) (Asteraceae) for Macrosiphoniella (Macrosiphoniella) tanecetaria (Kaltenbach, 1843), Amaranthus retroflexus (L.) (Amaranthaceae) for Macrosiphum (Macrosiphum) euphorbiae (Thomas, 1878) and Slybum marianum (L.) (Asteraceae) for Uroleucon (Uromelan) aeneum (Hille Ris Lambers, 1939) have been identified as new host plants in Türkiye.

Platycranus metriorrhynchus: A new Mediterranean plant bug in Hungary (Heteroptera: Cimicomorpha: Miridae: Orthotylinae)

AbstractPlatycranus metriorrhynchus Reuter, 1883, the first representative of the predominantly Holomediterranean plant bug genus, Platycranus Fieber, 1870 is reported as a new element of the Hungarian true bug fauna. Diagnostic characters and bionomics of the species are discussed.

Comparative genomics reveals evolutionary drivers of the dietary shift in Hemiptera.

Hemiptera insects exhibit a close relationship to plants and demonstrate a diverse range of dietary preferences, encompassing phytophagy as the predominant feeding habit while a minority engages in carnivorous or haematophagous behaviour. To counteract the challenges posed by phytophagous insects, plants have developed an array of toxic compounds, causing significant evolutionary selection pressure on these insects. In this study, we employed a comparative genomics approach to analyse the expansion and contraction of gene families specific to phytophagous insect lineages, along with their adaptive evolutionary traits, utilising representative species from the Hemiptera order. Our investigation revealed substantial expansions of gene families within the phytophagous lineages, especially in the Pentatomomorpha branch represented by Oncopeltus fasciatus and Riptortus pedestris. Notably, these expansions of gene families encoding enzymes are potentially involved in hemipteran-plant interactions. Moreover, the adaptive evolutionary analysis of these lineages revealed a higher prevalence of adaptively evolved genes in the Pentatomomorpha branch. The observed branch-specific gene expansions and adaptive evolution likely contribute significantly to the diversification of species within Hemiptera. These results help enhance our understanding of the genomic characteristics of the evolution of different feeding habits in hemipteran insects.

Ooencyrtus mirus (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae), discovered in Europe parasitizing eggs of Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae)

Ooencyrtus mirus Triapitsyn & Power (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) is recorded for the first time in Europe. It was found parasitising eggs of the invasive true bug Halyomorpha halys Stål (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae). This parasitoid is part of the Ooencyrtus telenomicida species complex where accurate species identification requires molecular data. Using morphology, the identification of the Ooencyrtus species parasitising brown marmorated stink bug eggs in Greece is ambiguous, but the sequences of the standard DNA barcode region (COI) and ITS2 place them in O. mirus.

Cave-dwelling fauna of Costa Rica: current state of knowledge and future research perspectives

This study focused on the cave fauna of Costa Rica, which has remained relatively understudied despite the presence of more than 435 recorded natural caves and artificial subterranean sites. We collected and reviewed all available literature data on cave fauna in Costa Rica and created the first comprehensive review of the existing information. In addition, we report new records from field surveys conducted between 2015 and 2018. This study reported approximately 123 animal species, whereas the remaining records (n = 82) represented taxa that could not be identified at the species level. Data were collected from 127 locations throughout the country, with new cave fauna records from 41 sites. Notably, we reported the first occurrence of the true bug Amnestus subferrugineus (Westwood 1837) within Costa Rican caves, which represents an addition to the country’s faunal inventory. As this study highlights the knowledge gaps in the subterranean fauna, it will serve as an important stepping stone for future research and conservation efforts related to caves in Costa Rica.

The application of the entomopathogenic fungus Akanthomyces muscarius modified GFP to study endophytization

Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) of the genus Akanthomyces (formerly Lecanicillium) are one of the most common and important fungal entomopathogens, infecting sucking insects of the order Hemiptera mainly. The fungi can also parasitize on phytopathogenic fungi (rust, powdery mildew). The entomopathogens from these genera reported as endophytes in various plants under natural conditions [1–2], contributing to an increase in plant immunity to pathogens, as well as a decrease in plant colonization by pests. Endophytic colonization of plants by the fungus Akanthomyces lecanii can suppress the growth of the peach aphid [3]. Akanthomyces muscarius strains caused the death of moth when feeding on cabbage colonized by the fungus [4]. Endophytic properties were assessed using the A. muscarius (= Lecanicillium muscarium) strain Vl 72-GFP fluorescently labeled with GFP [5]. The transformation was done by electroporation of germinated conidia of the high-virulent “wild” strain Vl 72 by the pBARGPE1 vector harboring an eGFP gene, showed an expression of fluorescent protein without affecting fungal growth and virulence. The influence of the fungus on the growth rates of beans was revealed when leaves, sterile soil and seeds were treated with a suspension of conidia of 108 spores/ml. On the 7th day, stimulation of the growth of the stems and roots of the beans was observed when the seeds were soaked in a spore suspension of the fungus. When spraying the leaves, only the stem’s elongation was observed. The studied strain colonizes beans irregularly. When treating the seeds, the fungus was isolated in greater quantities from the roots (26%), when spraying the leaves — from the stem (36%), when watering the soil — also from the stem (43%). Infection of A. muscarius plants by spilling the soil was most effective. No effect of endophytization was found on the number of aphids after 14 days of aphid plant colonization. As a result of the introduction of the spores of Vl 72-GFP strain by shedding the soil under flower crops (lantana, gerbera, acanthus) in the greenhouse of Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden, this strain was isolated from the leaves of the Acanthus mollis L. after one month, which confirms the ability of this species to endophytic colonization of plants in greenhouse conditions. Analysis of hyphae Vl 72-GFP in the plant performed on an AxioImager M1 fluorescent microscope demonstrated the same level of fluorescence as in A. muscarius hyphae growing on the media.

New Record Species of Tytthus chinensis (Stål, 1859) (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) from Iraq

By utilizing the light traps for the purpose of analyzing two specimens Insects were gathered from Diyala and Baqubah for the purpose of this study. The species Tytthus chinensis (Stl, 1859), which was discovered in China, was discovered in Iraq for the first time in March of 2022 in Diyala. This species is classified under the Hemiptera order and the Heteroptera suborder, as well as the Miridae family and the phylinae subfamily. utilized camera Lucida to sketch bodies’ portion, and image by Dino-Lite microscope camera for diagnostic characteristics for the species are supplied with the morphological characters and male genitalia are provided.

Lepidopteran Pests of Apple Trees on the Territory of the City of Vanadzor

Key Words: Lori region, pomaceae, egg, caterpillar, pupa, imago Lepidopteran pests of apple trees in the Lori region have been documented in specialised literature; however, research on these pests in Vanadzor has not been done, despite the fact that many dangerous insects, including lepidoptera, flooded into private gardens in the city of Vanadzor after extensive clearing of orchards nearby. In this area, private farms suffer substantial damage from caterpillars. Additionally, some pests' caterpillars can induce allergic reactions, some of which can be very dangerous, when they come into contact with people's skin, particularly that of youngsters. The investigation of this matter is the focus of this work. As a result of our research, we identified 14 species of leafrollers of apple trees, which belong to the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Homoptera. The greatest damage is caused by Apple ermine (Hypomoneuta malinellus Z.), Gypsy (spongy) moth (Lymantria dispar L.), Lackey moth (Malacosoma neustria L.), Brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea L.), Apple blossom weevil (Anthonomus pomorum L.), Tortrix moths especially Rose tortrix moth (Archips rosana L.), and Large fruit-tree tortrix (Archips podana L.). Entomophages have also been obtained, which belong to the families of Braconidae and the Ichneumonidae.